Mains Test Series -2024

1. Do you agree that ecological factors influenced the flow and ebb of the Harappan civilization. Comment ( 150 words) 10M

Answer: 

The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was known for advanced urban planning, sophisticated engineering, and a thriving economy. However, the Harappan civilization declined and eventually disappeared around 1900 BCE. There are several factors that contributed to the decline of the civilization, including ecological factors.

The study conducted in the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) found evidence that climate change drove the Harappans away from the cities leading them to the villages, a stage which is known as the Late Harappan Phase.

• Change in Monsoonal Wind Patterns: A shift in weather patterns and temperature over Indus valley caused the summer monsoons to gradually decline. With the change in Monsoons, agriculture in Harappan civilisation became difficult and impossible.
• Impact of Neoglacial anamolies: Between 4,500 and 3,000 years ago, strong winter monsoons were characterised by “early neoglacial anomalies (ENA)” that is characterised by changes in wind and precipitation patterns that are evident across the eastern Northern Hemisphere and tropics.  A general cooling, known as the neoglaciation is resulted into droughts in this region.
• Geographical Location: The civilization was situated in the Indus River valley, which provided a fertile land that allowed for agriculture and the development of cities. However, the same geographical location also made the civilization vulnerable to natural disasters such as floods and droughts. The civilization was heavily dependent on the monsoon rains for agriculture, and any disruption to this cycle could have disastrous consequences.
• Deforestation: The Harappan civilization was known for its advanced urban planning and sophisticated engineering, which required a significant amount of wood for construction and fuel. The civilization also engaged in agricultural activities, which led to deforestation. The depletion of forests may have had a significant impact on the environment, leading to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and changes in the local climate

These ecological factors may have led to food shortages, famine, and changes in the local climate that ultimately led to the decline of the civilization.

2. Second Urbanisation of India is result of many factors. Discuss? (250 words) 15M

The emergence of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas in the Indian subcontinent around 500-600 BCE is known as Second Urbanisation in India.

A major transition from a tribal quality-based community to a major territorial state was witnessed during the late Vedic period (900-600 BCE) in the Indian subcontinent. The Janas/people (clan or tribal) who are settled and who used to migrate towards the east started to settle down in various regions.

The loyalty of these people got shifted from the tribe or clan towards a territory which is the Janapadas. The literal meaning of Janapadas is a place where the tribals settle their foot but they fought which each other for political dominance and major needful resources. Some Janapadas started expanding bring others into their fold thus later transformed into Mahajanapadas.

Reasons for the emergence of second urbanisation:

Development of Agriculture:

Introduction of Iron Technology: Iron came into use in India in about 1000 BCE. It was increasingly used after 500 BCE. The use of iron was of vital importance for the expansion of agriculture. Iron axes were now used in clearing thick forests and iron-tipped ploughshares ploughed the land better

Better Irrigation: This was essential for better productivity. The kings funded the digging of canals, wells, tanks and artificial lakes. This was also done with the help of iron tools.

Better Agricultural Techniques: Practise of wet rice cultivation and Iron made instruments led to spread and increase in productivity.

Rise of Organised State: State helped in establishment of new settlements by shifting surplus  population from      overpopulated areas, providing  cattle, seed, money and irrigational facilities and providing remission of taxes and other concessions to peasants in new establishments

Intern trade and Commerce: Formation of states gave impetus to Urban economy. Small aristocracy    which extracted taxes started to demand luxurious items giving push to artistic activities and trade Age of barter trade was almost over. Punch marked coins  of copper & silver came to use  .

External trade: During this time, the Northern Path (Uttarapatha) was directly linked to the Silk Route. It was due to the roles of Darius I (Persian King) and Alexander. Both seized North-Western India and connected it to the Silk Route.

Role of Buddhism: Buddhism was against sacrifices. It insisted on the protection of cattle and preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.

The Janapada period saw the transition from the Indus valley civilization known as the bronze age to the famous Iron Age whereas the Mahajanapada period saw the transition from smaller settlements to one of India’s biggest urban area civilizations after the decline of the Indus valley civilization.

3. Buddhism and Jainism were social movements under the umbrella of religion. Comment? ( 250 words) 15M

Answer: 

Buddhism and Jainism were emerged to oppose the rich rituals and sacrifices preached by Hinduism. And also rigid verna system which promoted discrimination against the shudras and women. Buddhism  and Jainism being the simple religion to understand and follow had its impact on social, political, economical and Culture of India.

Impact on Society:

Buddhism and Jainism teachings raised a voice against the infamous caste system, challenging the superiority of Brahmins, social oppression, oppression of women, and inequality. Buddhism and Jainism condemned superstitions and the exercising of rites and rituals followed by Hinduism, especially animal sacrifice to appease gods. Buddhism also promoted idol worship which was later adopted by Hinduism too.

One of the greatest impacts of Buddhism and Jainism on Indian society was in the field of education. They carried their belief in egalitarianism and compassion by universalizing education for women and Shudras. They preached total equality, promotion of social equality and social justice helped Buddhism to cross the frontiers of Indian sub-continent and became a world religion

Buddhism and Jainism for personal development: Mindfulness, a practice of being present and aware of one’s thoughts and feelings, has become increasingly popular in recent years and has been used to treat a range of mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression. This technique is derived from Buddhist meditation practices and has been adapted for use in a secular context.

Theory of Interdependence in Buddhism and Jainism: This theory suggests that all things are interconnected and interdependent. This idea has inspired many to work towards creating a just and equal society.

Principle of Righteousness: The king must be righteous to his internal administration and foreign policy. Devote himself to the welfare of people including animals. He must strive for protection good, impartial justice, friendliness towards neighbouring kings. Ethical principles are applicable equally to the ruler and his subjects.

The underlying principle of Buddhist economics is to minimize suffering (losses) for all living or non-living things and to simplify one’s desires. Buddhist economics give importance to Gross National Happiness.

Buddhist and Jain’s social activism has taken many forms throughout history, including movements for human rights, environmental protection, economic development and the promotion of non-violence. The Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism, has been a prominent advocate for human rights and has worked tirelessly to promote peace and reconciliation in the world.

4. Through light on the significance of prehistoric paintings found in India. What is the relevance of these paintings in the present time? ( 250 words) 15M

Answer:

Prehistoric period in the early development of human beings is commonly known as the Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic Age. There was no paper or language or the written word, and hence no books or written documents. Painting on wall canvas was a way to express human feelings, artistic creation in such times.

Prehistoric Era art denotes the art (mainly rock paintings) during Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age and Chalcolithic Age.

Paleolithic Age Paintings: Subjects of early works confined to simple human figures, human activities, geometric designs, and symbols. In these paintings human beings are represented in a stick like form. One of the famous painting belongs to this period is Bhimbetka, which provides us the evidence of long cultural continuity.

Mesolithic Age Paintings: Hunting scenes were predominant. In some pictures animals are chasing men and in others they are being chased by hunter men. Community dance and family life can be seen in these paintings.

Chalcolithic Age Paintings: The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa Plateau.

Significance of these painings:

• Paintings were early humans visual record of their day-to-day life, as subjects of their drawings were human figures, human activities, geometric designs and animal symbols
• This helped us to understand early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and, above all, they help us understand their mind—the way they thought.
• Prehistoric period remains are a great witness to the evolution of human civilisation, through the numerous rock weapons, tools, ceramics and bones.

Relevance of prehistoric paintings:

The colour combination and material used for paintings suggests the life span of those natural materials and technology used by them. It also provides us the information about the evolution of human beings, society, metallurgy, culture and tradition. It also help us to understand the life style,  social, economic condition of women and men etc

5. Critically Examine the revenue administration and economic status of India during Mouryan age? ( 150 words) 10M

Answer:

The Mauryan Dynasty, which ruled over the bulk of India from 321 BCE to 185 BCE, was the first pan-Indian empire. The Mauryan Empire had a well-organised and centralised administration. Chanakya’s Arthashastra, Meghasthanis Indica are the important sources about Maurya’s revenue administration and economy.

During this period tax was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, woods, ferries, mining and pasture lands. License fees were collected from artists and fines were levied in courts. Generally one sixth to one fourth of the produce is collected as revenue. Samharta was head of revenue and Sannidhata was treasurer.

Brahmans, children and handicapped people were exempted from paying taxes and also some artisans and craftsmen. However, tax evasion was considered as serious offence and offenders were severely punished.

Mauryan economy was largely export oriented economy having a trade surplus with major export to Greek and items include Cotton, Textile, Spices, Pearls and Ivory works and major imports include Gold, Horses, Glass and Linen. The merchants’ profit percentages were set, and any extra earnings went to the Treasury.   

Agriculture is main driver of economy during this period. The state owned lands(Sita) were either directly cultivated or leased out under the supervision of Sita Adhyaksha. Bali, bhaga, shulka, kara, and other levies are listed on the fertile Gangetic plain. The villages that were immune from taxation were known as pariharaka, those that supplied soldiers as ayudhiya, and those that paid their taxes in grain, animals, gold, or raw materials as kupya.

Citizen of Mauryan Empire were forced to pay various taxes such as Bali, Pindakara, Kara and Hiranya. Failing to pay taxes forces farmers to render free service to the state which is symbol of slavery. Maintaining a large group of administrative officials was a reason for financial pressure.

The existing army of the Mauryan empire was huge and maintenance became challenging. Ashoka’s expenditure on donations to the Buddhist monks from the royal fund created a financial deficit in the royal treasury. As a result, the successors of Ashoka succumbed to the crisis. 

6. Elucidate the status of women in the society during the Vedic period? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

Male and Females are the two common constituents of the human civilization. Men and women are considered as chariots wheels  as they depend on each other for various things. Any finding or Study on society of historical times is unfinished without reviewing the role, status, and also the position of women during the historic period.

Marriage: Rig Vedic society have adored higher status for women, equal political rights and the right to attain high intellectual and spiritual standards. Many upper-class women would hold Swayamwars to select the husband of their choosing. Child marriage and Sati was rare. Even though it was a patriarchal culture, there were provisions in the early Vedic civilization for adult marriage, marriage at will, and widow remarriage.

Social engagement with newer cultures, safety of their young daughters because girls are treated as spoils of war and the property of men. Marriageable age was reduced to 8 to 10 years, sati became common, Purdah system became norm. There are a number of songs in the Rig-Veda that allude to the practise of polygamy.

Education: In early Vedic period both men and women were sent to educational institutions called Gurukulas. In order to be eligible for Upanayanam, women were encouraged to be proficient in philosophy, logic, and Vedic knowledge, as well as to sing Rig Veda slokas. In later Vedic period girls education was stopped.Women were deprived of their properties and were not considered necessary for political, educational and economic developments.

Female infanticide: During the time of the Vedic civilization, the son was given the responsibility of performing rites and substantial dowries led to social stigma that daughter was seen as a burden. As a result, the killing of female infants came to be seen as a viable option for relieving the burden. The TaittiryaSamhit gives its approval to this method of treatment.

Windows position: The position of a widow’s life was even more dreadful and horrific than that of regular women. Their life is full of torment, deformity, tonsure and desolation. She was not permitted to take part in any kind of social activity, not allowed to wear fine clothes or jewellery, and not even permitted to walk about the streets barefoot.

Sati: The Vedas, which are among the oldest and most revered of all the Indian scriptures, include a passage called the “Sati Hymn” that expressly allows the practise of Sati.

Remarriage: Throughout the entirety of the Vedic period, remarriage was forbidden; yet, according to the “Niyoga” concept, it was acceptable in some exceptional circumstances.

7. 

1. How the practise of land grants to Brahmanas led to decentralisation of administration during the Medieveal period? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

The practise of land grants to Brahmanas had been in practise since ancient times. The grants to religious institutions/brahmanas were called Brahmadeya, in which the Brahmanas not only had the right of ownership on land but also to collect taxes.

During Maurya’s period, Brahmans had only the right to enjoy the revenue from these lands but not right to sell and transfer this property. During the Satavaha period for the first time they had been donated with both administrative and revenue collection rights. But, however starting from the Gupta’s period it had been further expanded to included judicial powers as well.

Brahmanas, initially brought these lands into caultivation, thus economically became so strong. On one hand they became so dominant over their lands but on the other hand they looking for expansion of their political power over neighbours, which resulted in the rise of feudalism in early medieval period. Examples are Gurjara Prathiharas, Palas and Rastrakutanas.

Unlike the ancient kings of India, the paramount, imperial sovereigns are kings who directly administer their entire dominions, but in Medieval period king administered the only the central part of it and the rest through their host of officials. At the grass root level we can find the emergence of Sabha and Samiti with more powers to manage most subjects such as village roads, revenue, schools, temples and water tanks etc.

Despite having contributed to decentralisation of administration, it also led to the further stratification of society. The position of Sudras and women became more severely affected. Those powerful land lords also forced the cultivators to do Vishti.

2. Evaluate the impact of Muslim rulers invasion on Indian society with special focus on rituals and traditions of Hinduism? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

Before the emergence of Islam, for many years the Arabs had trade relations with the southern part of India. In 712 A.D., the Arabs invaded Sindh making it an important event in the history of India because it was the first time, under the leadership of Muhammad Bin Kasim, the Muslims had attacked India, gained political supremacy.

The impact of Muslim rule in India can be seen in many fields such as food, clothing, social life, believes, religion, language, literature and art and culture.

Impact on religion:

• Religious conversions: Hindus learnt conservatism as the Islam was aimed at maximum conversion of Hindus particularly lower castes and Buddhists to Islam. Therefore, the Hindu leaders adopted more orthodox beliefs to save their religion and emphasis was laid as per the Smritis on strict religious life.
• Democratic principles of religion: Islam gave the concept of the “Unity of God” to India and mainly the Hindus. Many scholars often regard it as the gift of Islam to India. The Hindu and Islam reformers influenced the Bhakti and Sufi movements to a large extent wherein they addressed fundamental equality of all religions.
• Tradition of Purdha: Before Muslim invasion women could move freely. Palanquins covered with curtains or Purdahs were used by the women to go out. During that time, kidnapping of Hindu women was considered as an act of Jihad and the Hindu women used the Purdah to protect themselves against the evil practice of Jihad.
• Abolition of untouchability: Gradually, under the influence of Islam, the Hindu society realised the need to abolish untouchability and discrimination within their own society and liberal treatment of such people in the interest of Hind community.

Despite having an impact on social life of Indians, it brought some negative consequences to India such as drinking of alcohol, treating women as object, slavery, non-vegetarian food. However, Islam also got influenced by Hinduism and adopted some philosophical ideals of it.

3. Discuss the reasons for the decline of women status during the Medieval India? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

The decline in women’s status during Medieval India was a multifaceted phenomenon driven by various socio-political, economic, and cultural factors:

1. Political Turbulence and Invasions: The frequent invasions and establishment of Islamic rule introduced new norms and practices that often curtailed women’s freedoms. The political instability and warfare led to the displacement and marginalization of women.

2. Islamic Legal and Cultural Practices: The imposition of Islamic laws, including purdah (veiling) and restrictions on women’s mobility, reinforced patriarchal norms. While some protections were offered, practical implementations often limited women’s public roles.

3. Feudalism and Caste System: The consolidation of feudal and caste structures reinforced gender hierarchies. Women, especially from lower castes, faced increased marginalization due to rigid social norms and economic structures.

4. Decline in Property Rights: Women’s property rights diminished as medieval legal and customary practices became more restrictive. Dowry practices and limited inheritance rights exacerbated economic dependence on male relatives.

5. Changes in Marriage Practices: The prevalence of child marriage and practices like Sati restricted women’s autonomy and educational opportunities, reinforcing their subordinate status.

6. Economic Factors: Economic changes and the growth of agrarian economies often marginalized women’s economic contributions. Economic dependence further diminished their social and economic status.

7. Religious and Cultural Influences: Orthodox interpretations of religion and cultural practices reinforced traditional gender roles, limiting women’s rights and societal participation.

8. Educational Decline: Access to education for women decreased, reducing their intellectual and social contributions and reinforcing their diminished status.

The decline in women’s status during Medieval India was a result of complex and interrelated factors including political instability, legal restrictions, economic changes, and cultural norms. Understanding these dimensions is crucial for addressing historical gender inequalities and promoting gender justice.

4. Analyse the Vibrant cultural activities in Peninsular India during 550-750 CE. Compare and contrast it with the situation in contemporary North India (250 words) 15M

Answer:

The fusion of culture of north and south India was the highlight of the Chalukya era. Making way for the tranmission of ideas between two regions. This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture which includes the elements of northern Nagara and southern Dravida styles.

During this period the Sanskrit language and culture started mingling with Dravidian culture and this impact can be felt even today. Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit literature. Mitakshara by Vigneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya III perhaps the greatest work in legal literature.

Mitakshara was a commentary on Yajngavalkya which is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and find acceptance in most parts of India. Both Shivasim and Vaishnavism flourished during the Chalukya period. They built many temples and hundreds of monuments were built during this period such as rock cut caves and Aihole temples etc.

In Southern India temples became the centres of cultural activities because of their huge funds, various grants and contributions made by rules and merchants. The Pallavas patronised Sanskrit language and literature. Madurai became the great centre of Tamil literature and culture. One of the most important literary works of this period is Tamil verion of ‘Ramayana’ by Kamban.

It is said that foreign traders, invaders polluted the vedic literature and culture and religion. In order to protect Vedic religion many Brahmins migrated to South India and preached vedic religion.

The period of 550-750 was absolute vibrant face of culture and art in southern India. Cultural progress was at helm of progress and this period is also known as fusion of North and South Indian cultures. This fusion can be traced in paintings, architecture, music, literature and even in language.

5. Why did Kannauj become so important during medival India? Critically analyse? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

Since from ancient to modern time, Kannauj had been seen as capital town for many grate empires like Harshavardhana. The location and geography of Kannauj was very significant because of various reasons, which led to the tripartite struggle during the medieval period between Palas, Parthiharas and Rashtrakutanas etc. The reasons for this struggle is for control over Kannauj.

Importance of Kannauj:

Seat of Authority: During the early medieval period Kannauj as seen as a sign of status and authority. Because it was a former capital of Harshavardhana’s empire and control over it represents the political domination over northern India.

Commercial Possibilities: Kannauj was located in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, which is very fertile land, which given surplus food grains and revenue from the farmers and traders.

Control over ancient Silk Route and Trade: Ancient silk route was passing through Kannauj, hence it is natural that control over it provides control over entire trade passing over it. Moreover it given good amount of revenue and trade avenues with foreign powers.

Strategic purpose: Since it is located in major trade route, this can be used to control the flow of goods and services to the rival groups. Hence it serves the strategic purpose too.

Mineral resources: Kannauj is also located very nearer to Iron ore mines of eatern India, which gives them military advantages.

Geographical location: Kannauj was located in northern plains, compared with other location it is less prone to vagaries of natural disasters such as floods, draughts, extreme cold and hot climatic conditions.

Because of these many reason, Kannauj had attracted attention of medieval power for control over it which resulted in tripartite struggle, which lasted for about two centuries. Eventually this struggle was ended with the victory of Prathiharas under Nagabhata II.

6. Describe in detail the different schools of Indian philosophy, emphasising on the branches of the Vedanta school. (150 words) 10 M

Answer:

In 11^th and 12^th centuries many schools of philosophy came into existence and Moksha or Salvation is the central theme of these schools. Hindu philosophy is basically classified into six orthodox or classical schools. They are illustrated below:-

Samkhya: Literally means count and this school is founded by Kapila. This school is strongly dualistic which believes in two realities, Purusha (Consciousness) and Prakriti (Matter). According to this school a person can attain salvation through the acquisition of real knowledge and this real knowledge can be acquired through pratyaksha, anumanya and shabda.

Yoga:  Yoga school was founded by Patanjali which presents the path for the salvation is the mental discipline by releasing PUrusha from Prakriti. Practise of control over pleasure, senses and bodily organs is central theme of this school. Yoga does not require the belief in god but refers the god as a teacher and guide.

Nyaya: School of Analysis founded by Guatama which believes in supremacy of logic and scientific approach, holds that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with the reason and experience. According to this school, the principle means for obtaining knowledge is pratyaksha pramana i.e knowledge obtained through 5 senses.

Vaisheshika: This school gave importance to discussion on material elements. It holds that earth, sky, fire, air and water give rise to other matter. This school propounded the atomic theory, beginning of physics in India

Mimamsa: This school signifies on art of reasoning and Vedas contains eternal truth. Yagna is the path for salvation. This school relies on Brahmanas and Samhitas of the Vedas.

Vedanta: As per the school self or the atman is identical with Brahman and hence if a person acquires knowledge of the self, he acquires the knowledge of Brahman ad thus attain salvation. Vedanta school is divided into 3 sub branches. They are

1. Absolute Monism/Advita: Shankara charya proposed this school which beliefs in one god i.e atman is completely identical with brahaman. Only true reality is Brahman which is pure consciousness, eternal and unchanging.
2. Visistadvaita/qualified monism: Proposed by Ramanujan which tells us that road to salvation is devotion or loving faith. Brahman is saguna which means possess attributes. The relationship between Brahaman and Ataman is similar to relationship between red rose and redness.
3. Dvaita: Proposed by Madhavachari. It considers the god is completely different from individual soal and the world. It says that relationship between god and individual as relationship between master and slave.

7. Describe the role of Vijayanagara Empire in the development of Agriculture and Trade in South India? (150 words) 10M

Answer: 

According to the accounts of foreign travellers, the Vijayanagar Kingdom was one of the wealthiest kingdoms of the world at that time.Agriculture continued to be chief occupation of the people.

Almost all rulers had made special focus on expanding the cultivable land by providing irrigation facilities. They had cleared forests, trees provided tax concessions for these new lands and also for waste lands. For example Krishna Deva Raya had provided 9 years of tax exemption to farmers who built a pond on their own for cultivation.

Apart from kings even villagers, private trading guilds and temples had their role in its development. Nuniz, the Portuguese traveller, mentions dam construction and canal excavation. 

It is evident from the various Kannada inscriptions that land tax, market tax and commercial taxes are used to construct, maintain and repairing ponds at various places in the empire. One fourth of the produce is collected as tax from the peasants.

Developments in Trade:

Numerous industries supplemented agricultural wealth, the most important of which were textiles, mining, and metallurgy. Perfumery was another important industry. Guilds governed industries and crafts. Trade there was thriving inland, coastal, and international trade, which was a major source of general prosperity. According to Abdur Razzak, the kingdom had 300 seaports.

Malabar, with its important port of Cannanore, was the most important commercial area on the West coast. It maintained commercial ties with the Indian Ocean islands, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, and China to the east, and Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia, and Portugal to the west.

Thus, the Vijayanagara rule in South India can be considered as golden period in not only agriculture and trade but also socially, culturally and in developments in art, literature and architecture.

8. Access the technological developments during the Mughal period? (150 words) 10M

During the Mughal period commodities are mostly made using manual labour. But however in terms of quality of products they were able to compete with the machine made commodities. These handmade and high quality products had high demand in foreign markets. For example

• The handmade silk and cotton cloths of India had more demand than the machine made cloths from China and Italy. Dying of silk and cotton using the natural dies is well developed.
• Knowledge of gold workers, tools and technology used in ornament making is far superior than Europe.
• Hand gund and canons are another important industry flourishing during the Mughal period. They have made a very powerful canon with copper metal known as Malik Maidan. This had been acknowledged by Bernier.
• Missile technology was also developed during this time. Ban rockers were used by not only Mughals but also exported to Europe.
• In Deccan, hydroelectricity generation was prevalent by that time.
• Ship Building activity was flourished in Surat. Indian Ship builders became a tough competitors for European ship builders.

Despite having these technological advances they had some inherited limitations in technological front because of the following reasons

• They mainly depended on human labour instead of adopting technology in manufacturing
• They didn’t made good efforts in mining of coal and iron ore, which are core for many industrialisation
• Lack of technological development in metallurgy, energy and chemical industry.
• Less interest in risk taking and less financial support from both kings and rich merchants.
• Migration of workers due to livelihood opportunities in their traditional skills.

With their abilities in hand crafts and primitive technology, Indian had made high quality products with high standards which had been prised by many Europeans.

9. Bhakti movement and Sufism were both categorical in promoting Hindu-Muslim unity. Do you agree? Substantiate your answer with exmaple? (150 words) 10 M

Answer: 

Bhakti and Sufi movements are on face seems to be religious movements but they are more as  social reform movements which tried to reform the society and emphasis on unity of god and unity of all human beings.

Contribution of Sufism to promote Hindu-Muslim Unity:

The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more liberal movements. The Sufis believed in the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being) which was promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240). He opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religïons were identical also supported non-sectarian religion based on universal love.

A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of society. Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or caste. It is said that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah.

According to the Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind. They treated Hindus and Muslims alike. Amir Khusrau said “Though the Hindu is not like me in religion, he believes in the same things that I do”.

Contributions of Bhakti movement to promote Hindu-Muslim Unity:

Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious bigotry and social rigidities. They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious values. Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian lines.

They preached their message in local languages and also people, irrespective of their religion, began to understand and appreciate others’ faith. Guru Granth Sahib has an inclusive approach to religious wisdom.

Despite the both the major religious talks about the unity of god and universal brotherhood but in contemporary times, religion and religious identity is being used as cover for political agenda. Be it terrorist violence or sectarian nationalism in various parts of the world, religion is used to mask underlying politics.

10. To what extent, Aurangzeb’s religious policies contributed to the decline of Mughal rule. Elucidate? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

Aurangzeb is known for his strict and aggressive religious opinions and policies. He was very orthodox and conservative Islamic. He had learned Hadiths and observed rituals of Islam keenly.

Aurangzeb’s religious policies:

• His religious policies had the pure aim of converting the entire Indian subcontinent into an Islamic nation/empire. He was even against the Shia Muslims. His main objective was to support, promote and expand the Islamic community, and the second was to adopt anti-Hindu steps.
• He declared Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, which is a compilation of ethics, laws, and rules which are completely based on Islam. He was among the very few Mughal emperors to establish a complete Sharia law and Islamic economics.
• Temples were seen by Aurangzeb as hotbeds of rebellious ideas, or beliefs that were not acceptable to the orthodox elements. Hence he ordered to demolish the large number of temples including Somnath, Keshawanath temple etc. He led to rebellion by Hindu leaders such as Rajputs, Jats etc.
• Reimposition of Jaziya, Removal of Hindus from Government jobs, promoting the conversions through various means and different social restrictions made social life of people harder.
• Muhtasibs were appointed by Aurangzeb in each province. Their main task was to ensure that people followed the sharia in their daily life.

This alienated Hindus and increased the position of those who opposed the Mughal Empire for political or other reasons, alienating Hindus and strengthening the position of those who opposed the Mughal Empire for political or other reasons. The successors to Aurangzeb were ineffective and unable to adequately maintain the government. Thus the above mentioned religious policies of Aurangzeb had its role in the decline of Mughal empire.

11. Why should the 16th century be regarded as the period of Indian Renaissance? (150 words) 10M

Answer:

Renaissance is a French word and it means ‘rebirth’. It is a concept of European civilisation and is held to have been characterised by a surge of interest.

In Religious sphere:

During the 16^th century north India was ruled by early Mughals, which followed the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam. However, they did not impose any religious beliefs on others. Their religious policy was based on religious tolerance and the co-existence of different religions. Minorities like Hindus and Shias were allowed to practice their religion freely during this time.

In South India, Hindu was the dominant religion more specifically Vaishnavism Hindu which focused on Lord Vishnu. However they were tolerant to other faiths and Muslims lived in harmony with other religions.

In Economic domain:

Both in northern and southern India, economy based on manufacturing started gaining importance during this period. Till then, the handmade artisans started adopting technology to compete with western countries.

Art and Architecture:

In Northern India, new building methods had been introduced such as domes, red sand stones, large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation etc.

Vijayanagar architecture is characterised by its ornate style, with intricate carvings and sculptures adorning the walls, pillars, and ceilings. The temples and palaces were built in a blend of Indo-Islamic, Hindu, and Dravidian styles and are famed for their imposing scale and grandeur.

In Society:

Lower castes remained free from many of these social evils. There was no purdah system in them and their women were free to divorce and remarry. Even widow-marriages were permitted among them.

Women were treated with the respect as daughters, wives and mothers. With the exception of evil cultures of sati and prostitution which had state sanction, the role and status of women during this period was laudable and they occupied important positions in administration too.

12. Discuss the nature of Mughal Empire from the lens of the foreign travellers? (150 words) 10M

Answer: 

Many foreign travellers had visited India during the Mughal ruler and they left a precious account of India during that time. The most notable among them were Francois Bernier, Thomas Roe, William Hawkings and Nicholas Withington and many more

The most notable contribution was made by Bernier who wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ in which he compared India with Europe, current social, economical and political life of India was presented.

Political situation in northern India: Francois has exhaustively and intricately detailed the political intrigues, military strategies and tactics. Francois outlined the five-year war for the throne between Shah Jahan’s four sons, identifying each of their distinguishing characteristics. A full narrative of the battles of Bahadurgarh, Dharmat, and Samugarh is given, as well as a graphic depiction of military organization, combat tactics, armies on both sides, cavalry, and so on.

Economic position of India: Ibn Battuta mentions about Bazaars as not only places of economic activity but also social and cultural activities. According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former. In the later time Foreign merchants, particularly after the starting of Industrial revolution in Europe, many Europeans came to India. Ex: Thomas Roe, William Hawkings who received farmans for Jahangir to trade in India.

The governors and revenue contractors were not bothered with the wretched status of the peasantry since the jagir, or owners were constantly shifted. What interested them was simply the produce and agriculture. Farmers were therefore exploited to the fullest extent possible. 

Social life and religion: Bernier described Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small minority of a very rich and powerful ruling class. The caste system was prevalent, which alienated individuals by birth and hereditary employment. Practise of Sati was flourished, believed in Soul transmigration.

Justice: Thomas Roe noted that, the Emperor was the highest authority in the Mughal Empire and was the fountain of Justice. Emperor Shah Jahan and Emperor Aurangzeb were proclaim their decisions as for as possible on the orthodox law.

Also Giovanni Careri, quoted about the justice administration in Mughal empire that, the great Mughal was so absolute that there being no written Laws. Their will in all things are law. And the last decision of all causes, both civil and criminal from the Emperors.

1. Assess the characteristics of 19th century Renaissance movements in India? (250 words) 15M

Answer:

The renaissance movement in India was started with the introduction of English education. The principles of equality, fraternity, freedom and democratic values had attracted the educated Indians to develop critical attitude towards the Indian society which had engulfed in religious, caste, race and other discriminations.

They had started working towards the abolition of social evils such as child marriage, Sati, human sacrifices. These early reforms carried their activities by establishing several societies for this purpose. The most prominent among them are

Brahmo Samaj: Brahmo Samaj was established by the “Father of Indian Renaissance”, Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828. It founded this society to reforms the Indian religious practises and customs which has no rational basis. Through this samaj he spread the ideas of

1. Monotheism
2. Denounces idol worship
3. Oppose the caste discrimination
4. They denounce the doctrine of Karma and transmigration of soul.

Ram Mohan Roy also worked hard to eliminate child marriages and Sati and because of his efforts Bengal Sati Regulation act: 1829 was passed by William Bentinck. However, he couldn’t able to spread his movement to other parts of the country and only limited to few sections of the society.

Arya Samaj:  Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 to reforms the Hindu religion and gave the call for “Go Back to Vedas”. The main teaching of this samaj were

1. Believe in the infallibility of Vedas and consider them as ultimate source of Knowledge.
2. Oppose idol worship
3. Supported the notion of ‘karma’ and transmigration of soul
4. Condemned the Brahmanical domination over the Hindu spiritual and social life. 

However it supported the four Varna system and over reliance on Vedas prevented his followers to take up the Western ideas and values. The Shuddhi movement which tried to restore the purity of Hindus who had been corrupted by other religions were not progressive in nature.

Prathana Samaj: The movement was started by Atmaram Panduranga, and after reformer and scholar Mahadev Govind Ranade joined it, it acquired speed and popularity. The main teaching of this samaj were

1. Monotheism
2. They promoted inter-caste marriages, dowry system, polygamy, night schools
3. They fought for the upliftment of depressed classes and to removal of untouchability.
4. It worked for window remarriage and abolition of child marriages. It was largely based in Western India and limited to Bombay presidency.

Theosophical Society: Madame H. P. Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott founded the Theosophical Society in New York in 1875 with headquarters at Adyar, Chennai. Annie Besant popularised this movement in India. The main teaching of this society were

1. Comparative analysis of western Dharma, Philosophy and Science with Indian philosophy.
2. Universal brotherhood.
3. Unity of all living beings.

However this society laid heavy emphasis on ancient sculptures which created a sense of pride among Indians which left no room for reform.

Ramakrishna Mission: Ramakrishna mission was started by disciple of Ramakrishna, Swami Vivakananda in 1896 to spread the ideas of

1. Service to the human is the service to the god.
2. improving women’s situation, combating untouchability and superstition, and overhauling the educational system.
3. Equality and oneness of god and religions.

With the efforts of the above stated samajs and societies the evils practises in Hinduism were reduced. And eventually they brought a change in the attitude of Indians and the development of national feeling which created a base for future national movement.

1. Critically evaluate the significance of Iran’s admission to SCO for India. (150 words) 10M

Answer: 

Over the years, the Iranian economy has suffered on account of West-imposed sanctions due to its nuclear developments. The USA withdrew from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) nuclear deal in 2018 and imposed a policy of ‘maximum pressure’ on Iran.

As a result, Tehran is focusing on Look East to achieve its economic and strategic objectives; it has reformulated its foreign policy from ‘Neither East Nor West’ to ‘Pivot to East’.

Significance of Iran’s admission to SCO for India:

1. Connectivity to Central Asia: Over the years, India has been trying to establish the direct trade route to central Asia via Iran, for which it had made significant investments in Chabhar port as part of North-South Transport corridor.
2. Trade and Commerce: Since India had zero out its oil imports with Iran for American pressure. Iran is also a major importer of agriculture products from India. SCO provides a platform to further negotiations to promote trade thereby rejuvenate relations.
3. To maintain Balance of Power: Ever since, USA withdrawn from Afghanistan, China had made huge investments in strategic sectors in Central Asian countries. Which is seen as a threat to Russia’s and India’s traditional influence over these countries.  Hence presence of a Muslim dominated country can act as a natural buffer to the Chinese hegemony.
4. To effectively tackle the terrorism: India and Iran are sharing border with Pakistan and been suffering from Terrorism. RATS platform of SCO helps both countries to combine tackle the terrorism.
5. To ensure peace and security in the West Asia Region: West Asia is home to millions of Indians who playing crucial role to strengthen India’s soft power and for inward remittances. Thus SCO can provide an opportunity for India to promote its national interests.

Concerns for India:

1. Economic pact between Iran and China: Recently, Iran and China had signed a 25 years deal to export Iranian oil to China. This strengthens China’s economic influence in Iran. Later China can use Iranian ports as bases to encircle India as part of its ‘String of Pearls’ strategy.
2. In the Ukraine war, Iran is supplying weapons and missiles to Russia and since India is in a position to influence Iran, Western countries are putting pressure on India to stop these supplies
3. Human right violations: The death of Mahsa Amini in custody of morality police also raised concerns over human rights particularly so of women rights. India along with western countries is putting pressure on Iran to uphold human rights.

Despite these pit falls, India and Iran are age old time tested natural allies. The presence of Iran in SCO will further boost the relations between the counties.

2. In the backdrop of recent clashes amongst Indian Diaspora abroad, suggest how Indian politics and Foreign policy must recalibrate their approach towards diaspora engagement? (150 words) 10M

Answer: 

Recently we see that Diaspora in Canada had gathered outside the consulate where one faction holding the Indian tri colour flag and other with Khalistan flag. This kind of incidents have noticed in various other countries such as Australia, UK and USA too. This raises very serious concerns among the foreign govt and Indian missions abroad and border national interests at large.

Some of the reasons for such incidents are

Polarisation of Indian Diaspora: Indian diaspora politics is mirroring what is happening back in India on ideological lines. Fake news through social media platforms: Social media nowadays which is full of fake and misleading information adding to this.

Political and official patronage and the same violence: Dissent, even a different point of view, is not tolerated, neither from the local pro-Indian government groups nor by the diplomatic missions.

Suggestions for Indian Politics:

Promotion of constitutional values among Indian Diaspora: Recognising the contributions made o Diaspora both in terms of remittances and strengthening India’s soft power outlook in those countries, the leaders while visiting those countries try to spread the constitutional value of equality and fraternity among them instead of promoting the ideological elements.

Promoting democratic values at home: In the Information Technology world any news/incident at home is having its reactions in Diaspora community. So, it is very important to follow democratic and secular politics at home by respecting the voice of descent and sense of belongingness and oneness.

Suggestions for Foreign Policy:

Avoiding religious leader hosting at missions abroad: A new dimension has been added by the official patronage of Hindu groups by Indian diplomatic missions in foreign countries. Yogis and sadhvis of various kinds are hosted by the missions and select groups of local Indians are invited to meet them. By avoiding such patronage will send the secular message to Indian Diaspora abroad

Conducting Joint Cultural Events: We have been seeing that even many Hindu festival been celebrated by foreign heads of state to please the Indian Hindu voters which annoying other communities. So, Indian missions have to focus on having a joint cultural events.

Diaspora is not only chief source of remittances but their presence has strategic importance which uphold India’s strategic and national interests. Polarising them on communal or any other lines will have multifaceted negative consequences for India to maintain global peace and to establish ‘Vasudhika Kutumbam’. 

1. Give an overview of the Enforcement Directorate’s (ED) power to arrest and seek custody in a money laundering case? What changes do you suggest to remove the clouds of overreach by ED? (250 words) 15M

Answer:

Money laundering is one of the major source of funds for organised criminals and terrorists to conduct their anti-national activities not only India but also around the world. Money laundering also had potentials to derail the economic progress of the country. In order to prevent/tackle this menace Enforcement Directorate (ED) was created just after independence in 1956.

 ED has powers under Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002, Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999, Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018, Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974 to effectively prevent money laundering.

Power of ED to arrest and investigate Money Laundering cases:

• Section 19 of PMLA act authorised the director or any other officer authorised by him to arrest any person guilty of offence of Money laundering.
• As per Sections 48 & 49 of the PMLA, the officers of the Directorate of Enforcement have been given powers to investigate cases of Money Laundering. The officers have also been authorised to initiate proceedings for attachment of property and to launch prosecution in the designated Special Court for the offence of money laundering.

This position of ED was also upheld by the Supreme court in various cases:

In Vijay Madanlal Choudhary v. Union of India: 2022 case Supreme court upheld the number of provisions that deals with the arrest (Section 19), attachment, search and seizure powers granted to the ED. The court held that all of the PMLA’s provisions had a legitimate connection to the goals that the Act aims to accomplish in order to successfully prevent money laundering.

In P. Chidambaram v. Directorate of Enforcement: 2019 case Supreme Court opined that granting pre-arrest bail would thwart the need for a “systematic and analysed” inquiry into a money-laundering case and thus rejected the anticipatory bail petition.

Measures to remove the clouds of Overreach of powers by ED:

• Section 19 itself provides a solution by stating that reasons for such belief/materials on which arrest is made to be recorded in writing, thus preventing the vexatious arrests
• Section 62 provides a explicit provisions to prevent vexatious arrest and provides a punishment of 2 years and a fine of Rs. 50,000/- for such officers.
• Parliamentary Sub-Committee on Money Laundering and Terrorism: Provide an explicit provision in the law for make it accountable to the parliament through annual reports on case by case along with the status of the cases.
• Bring the ED under the Right to Information Act: 2005: Once it would be brought under the ED, it will be accountable to the larger public. So that overreach of powers can be effectively checked in a democratic way.

However, off late ED has been used by governments in powers to target opposition leaders. So, it is high time to make it independent from executive and accountable to parliament.