IR

1. Strategic Partnership Agreement:

Written Formal Agreement + Based on Common values.

• If they have the capability to protect themselves and doesn’t require security protection.
• Engagement on multiple dimensions except security protection. E.g. Cultural, S&T co-op, Economic, Developmental Diplomacy, Security Co-op which may include a sale or purchase of defence equipment at a privileged price)
• India has signed Strategic Partnership with over a dozen countries across the globe. E.g. India-Japan; India-US; India-France Strategic Partnership etc.
• It is obvious that not all strategic partnerships are equally important. Some have a dominant Political element, while others have a prominent EconomicIn some cases, the Security dimension may be the most important.
• Both Nations retain the flexibility to continue political engagement and economic co-operation with their common adversaries.
• It aims to avoid Entrapment or being dragged into partner’s disputes and potentially into a Conflict.
• Regular high level political and military interactions.
• Mutual and collaborative approach towards strategic policies.
• “Strategic partnerships are commonly associated with defense or security related issues, but a survey of formal strategic partnerships around the world reveal they can also be quite a hold-all, covering a wide range in bilateral relations, from defense to education, health and agriculture, and quite commonly, economic relations, including trade, investment and banking.”

Why Does India Have So Many ‘Strategic Partners’ and No Allies?

Because India as an independent nation has the capacity to defend itself and doesn’t want to join any alliance. 

2. Alliance

• A written, formal agreement between two or more states.
• This agreement is based upon common values like Political, Economic and Religious Values.
• Alliances can be either formal or informal arrangements. A formal alliance is publicly recognised through the signing of a treaty in which the signatories promise to consider an attack on anyone of them as equivalent to an attack on all of them.
• The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is a good example of a formal security alliance. Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organisation

Why a Country Proposes an Alliance to other Country

A big country proposes alliance to a small country primarily with an intention to gain preferential market access in the small country. In return, the big country promises to provide security protection as and when needed. 

3. Appeasement.

Appeasement is an extremely problematic foreign policy goal.

• It is based on the assumption that acceding to the demands of aggressive states will prevent war from breaking out.
• The folly of this approach lies in the fact that aggressive states are rarely satisfied in this way.
• Capitulating to their demands simply feeds their thirst for power, making them even stronger.
• The best example of failure of Appeasement is the Appeasement policy of the Britain and France with Germany.
• Even after appeasing Germany with the Sudetenland, Germany attacked Britain. But there are occasions also to state that the policy of Appeasement has avoided a war.

4. Anarchy

• Lawlessness or Chaos.
• A state has no rule in place. Such a situation can cause instability in the system. The situation then is not conducive for diplomacy.
• Anarchy is often associated with periods of revolutionary upheaval and extreme social and political turbulence.
• Anarchyis the state of a society being freely constituted without authorities or a governing body. It may also refer to a society or group of people that entirely rejects a set hierarchy.

5. ARMS CONTROL

• One way of dealing with the proliferation of weapons is through negotiated arms control agreements, which have a long history in international relations.
• Arms control is different from Advocates of the latter argue that the only way to ensure peaceful international relations is to eliminate weapons from the calculations of states.
• In contrast, the purpose of arms control is purely regulatory. Its goal is not to construct a new world order, but to manage the existing one. Indeed, arms control may go hand in hand with an increase in the numbers and types of weapons among states.

6. Poles

Unipolarity

• Unipolarity is a situation in which one state or superpower dominates the international system. Many would argue that the United States is in this position today.

Bipolarity

• Bipolarity exists when two states or blocs of states are roughly equal in power. The term is often applied to the period of the cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Multipolarity

• The alternative is an emerging multipolar world where countries cultivate their own independent spheres of influence.
• By this design, China could be the pole in East Asia. Russia in the Eurasia region. The EU – in some form – in Europe. The US in the Americas. And perhaps India in South Asia.
• But this could also mean the evolution of different value systems in different regions of the world with a corresponding weakening of US influence in general.

Multilateralism

• In international relations, multilateralism refers to an alliance of multiple countries pursuing a common goal.
• For the US the best bet is still multilateralism. For, this ensures that the values of democracy, liberalism, human rights and freedoms that the US has championed for decades remain the highest ideals. However, the US would have to swallow its arrogance and be more accommodative of other rising nations.

7. Balance of Power

• The theory of balance of power says, that the world in which we live in is called a system.
• In the system there are countries.
• All these countries are in a state of equilibrium. Which means all these countries have equal power.
• The equilibrium of the system can be disturbed, if one country in the system becomes powerful. It means a country can become powerful if it follows three steps
  • Political Stable
  • Economic Stable
  • Security Stable
• Traditionally, it refers to a state of affairs in which no one state predominates over others. Prescriptively, it refers to a policy of promoting a power equilibrium on the assumption that unbalanced power is dangerous.

9. Bush Doctrine

• The Bush doctrine represents a sweeping overhaul of US foreign policy and a highly aggressive plan to reshape world order in the wake of the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon.
• There are four identifiable pillars of the doctrine.
  • The spread of democracy;
  • Threat and preventive war;
  • Unilateralism;
  • American hegemony.

10. Cheque Book Diplomacy

• Cheque Book Diplomacy, is used to describe a foreign policy which openly uses economic aid and investment between countries to curry diplomatic
• The term has been used to describe the Marshall Plan of rebuilding the Western Europe after the WWII.
• The recent allegations of China waiving of loans of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
• Institutions like AIIB are being signalled to be tools of Cheque Book Diplomacy by China.
• The oil-rich Gulf sheikdoms, particularly the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, have long used cash-based diplomacy to try to shape regional events and support figures sympathetic to their worldview.
• Over many decades the United States has used foreign assistance and trade to build and strengthen alliances around the world.

Cheque Book Diplomacy : Success depends on

• Relative utility of the Economic Carrot.
• Economic State Craft of the beneficiary nation.
• Other tools to build the beneficiary country.

11. Capitalism

• An economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
• Capitalismis an economic system in which private individuals or businesses own capital goods. The production of goods and services is based on supply and demand in the general market—known as a market economy—rather than through central planning—known as a planned economy or command economy.
• Capitalismis a political and economic theory which states that individuals are free. They are free to make money, own businesses, sell goods and services and crucially own private property. Emphasis within capitalist countries is on the role of individuals rather than the state.

12. Communism

• In theory, a communist society is organised in such a way that individuals share in the fruits of their labours equally and hold property in common.
• Individuals contribute what they can and consume only what they need.
• They treat each other equally and fairly, regardless of gender, age, or nationality.
• There is no need for the coercive power of the state to keep individuals under control, and the acquisitive behaviour that is characteristic of liberal capitalist societies becomes unthinkable.
• Needless to say, this vision has never been fully realised in practice.

13. Clash of Civilisations

• The world is divided into a number of civilisations. They are Western, Latin American, African, Islamic, Sinic, Hindu, Buddhist, and Japanese. Within some of these civilisations, there is a core state, often possessing nuclear weapons. Sinic civilisation has China as its core; Japan has its own civilisation.
• Western civilisation has linked cores in the United States, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Russia is the core state of Orthodox Christianity. In contrast, Islam lacks a core state, as does Latin America and Africa.
• In the future, we can expect conflicts to emerge along the major fault-lines between civilisations: Orthodox versus Western Christianity and Islam; Muslim versus Hindu; Sinic versus Hindu. Africa and Latin America will remain on the side-lines.

14. Coercion

• Coercion involves the study of threats and demands that encourage the adversary to either reverse its action or stop what it has been doing.
• Unlike deterrence, which stresses the prevention of an attack or the use of threats by state A to dissuade its enemy, state B, from attacking, coercion consists of the use of threats by state A, or the coercer (e.g. state hegemon, NATO,UN), to reverse an act of aggression by state B.
• To coerce a state, then, means to employ a range of diplomatic and military options. These may include economic/trade sanctions, blockades, embargoes, and precision air-strikes.

15. Debt Trap

• A situation in which a state has to spend much of its earnings from trade on servicing its external debts rather than on economic and social development. This is one of the most crippling problems for Third World countries.
• The origins of the debt trap for poor states lie in the formation of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1973 and the dramatic rise in oil prices that year.
• Presently China is known to use this policy of Debt Trap Diplomacy extending unsustainable loans to the various countries especially in the Indian Ocean Region and asking them political and military concessions in return for failure to pay back the debts.
• Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal and some African Countries. The BRI of China.
• On some occasions, the institutions like World Bank and IMF have also been used by the US as back door Debt Trap Diplomacy.

China’s Stand on Debt Trap

• First, a pure Economic Venture
• Projects in Foreign Countries predate the BRI. Eg. Hambantota Port in Srilanka.
• The mounting debt in host countries is a result of fiscal mismanagement and internal functioning errors.
• Policy of fiscal assistance is fragmented and not designed to pursue any Strategic Objective.

16. Decolonization

• The process whereby a colonial society achieves constitutional independence from imperial rule.
• It is the reverse of colonisation – a process whereby one state occupies the territory of another state and directly rules over its population.
• Decolonisation amounts to the granting or return of sovereignty to the colony.
• In contemporary terms, decolonisation is most often associated with the achievement of political independence of Africa and much of Asia from the European states after 1945.
• It began in earnest in the early 1950s and continues up to the present day. Between 1980 and 1989, for example, Britain granted independence to Zimbabwe, Belize, Antigua, and Brunei.

17. Disagreement in International Relations

• Disagreement in IR may be due to absence of Shared common values or even in the presence of common values. The disagreement may be natural, border question, trade policy etc.
• Afghanistan-Pakistan Border (Pashtuns)
• India-Myanmar (FMR)
• The Countries then try to resolves these disagreements diplomatically through talks (formal/official). If talk fails, leading to a dead lock, suspicion arises. Mutual Suspicion may lead to violence(Violence here is Accidental, Not deliberate, Unintentional, Ceasefire).
• During the violent campaign a state may even occupy enemies territory, however, after the ceasefire there would be withdrawal, thereby maintaining the status quo.
• g. India-China 1962 Conflict – Unilateral withdrawal after the violence or Skirmish (Short campaign of Violence)

18. Conflict

• Conflict occurs because of a disagreement. Border Question
  • g. 1962 India-China Conflict;
  • 1999 India-Pakistan Kargil War
• Conflict – Disagreement – Suspicion – Violence (Long) – Short campaign of Violence is called a Skirmish
• If the Skirmishes are not resolved i.e., unresolved skirmish, it is called a stand off.
• At the end of these there will always be a Cease Fire. Going back to status quo.
  • E0g 2017 Doklam Standoff.
    • Ended with ceasefire and an attempt to maintain status quo.
  • g 2020 Stand Off in Ladakh – Leading to Moonlight Massacre in Galwan Valley
    • Both the countries are negotiating ceasefire – to maintain status quo.

19. War

• “an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfil our will.” 
• Intention to attack- and its not accidental.
• It leads to violating the sovereignty of another country
• That country has a right to defend/retaliate.
• The retaliation can be proportionate or disproportionate.
• The war ends with an agreement.

20. Civil War

• First and foremost, a Civil War is always Internal. It happens within the country.
• No one is attacking your country. A fight within the borders of the country.
• It is happening amongst the people of the country.
• Now the question is why the people of a country with in a geographical borders fight with each other.
• The answer is “Capture Political Power” through violence.
• It means there must be at least two groups fighting to capture power. And if there are two groups, it also means these two groups have different political ideologies. Because they want one ideology to prevail over the other.
• This Civil War can have international repercussions. E.g. Create instability in the international system, refugee influx etc. And this situation is also not conducive for diplomacy.

21. Gun-Boat Diplomacy

• In International politics, the term gunboat diplomacyrefers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare should terms not be agreeable to the superior force.
• A country negotiating with a Western power would notice that a warship or fleet of ships had appeared off its coast.
• The mere sight of such power almost always had a considerable effect, and it was rarely necessary for such boats to use other measures, such as demonstrations of firepower.

22. Neo-Colonialism

Neo-colonialism is the practice of using economics, globalisation, cultural imperialism, and conditional aid to influence a developing country instead of the previous colonial methods of direct military control (imperialism) or indirect political control (hegemony).

23. Democratization

The processes associated with the spread of democracy around the world from its core in Western Europe and North America.

24. Dependency

Dependency refers to exogenously imposed conditions whereby the exposure of Third World states to foreign direct investment (FDI), unequal trade agreements, interest payments on debt, and the exchange of raw materials for higher-priced manufactured goods creates structurally unequal relations between the core and the periphery.

25. Deterrence

• In its simplest form, deterrence consists of the following threat, intended to dissuade a state from aggression: ‘Do not attack me because if you do, something unacceptably horrible will happen to you.’ In other words, deterrence is a form of persuasion in military strategy.
• India’s Nuclear Doctrine is a deterrent in nature and approach.

26. Diaspora

• A diaspora is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin.

27. North and South

The North is mostly correlated with the Western world and the First World, plus much of the Second World, while the South largely corresponds with the Third World and Eastern world.

The two groups are often defined in terms of their differing levels of wealth, economic development, income inequality, democracy, and political and economic freedom, as defined by freedom indices.

Nations in the North tend to be wealthier, less unequal and considered more democratic and to be developed countries who export technologically advanced manufactured products.

Southern states are generally poorer developing countries with younger, more fragile democracies heavily dependent on primary sector exports and frequently share a history of past colonialism by Northern states.

Digital Divide

• The technological disparity between the North and South is what characterises the digital divide.

28. Disarmament

• The attempt to eliminate or radically reduce armaments. It can be distinguished from the concept of arms control, which entails restraint but not necessarily reduction in the number and kinds of weapons available to states.

29. Distributive Justice

• Distributive justice concerns the socially just allocation of goods. Principles of distributive justice provides moral guidance for the political processes and structures that affect the distribution of benefits and burdens in society.
• The basic principle of distributive justice is that equal work should produce equal outcomes and some people should not accumulate a disproportionate amount of goods.

30. Diplomacy

• Diplomacy is the practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states or groups. It entails influencing the decisions and conduct of foreign governments and officials through dialogue, negotiation, and other non-violent means.
• The routine business of international affairs is conducted through the peaceful instrument of diplomacy.
• Ambassadors, ministers, and envoys are official spokespersons for their country abroad and the instruments through which states maintain regular direct contact.
• There are three main functions of diplomacy – intelligence gathering, image management, and policy implementation.

31. Ethnic Cleansing

• Ethnic cleansingis the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial and/or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, often with the intent of making it ethnically

32. Ethnicity

• In international relations, Ethnicity refers to aspects of relationships between groups that consider themselves, and are regarded by others, as being culturally distinctive.
• The word ethnicity is derived from the Greek ethnos (which in turn derived from the word ethnikos), meaning nation.

33. Extraterritoriality

• In international law, extraterritoriality refers to instances in which the jurisdiction and laws of one sovereign state extend over the territory of another, usually under a treaty granting such rights.
• In general, extraterritorial jurisdiction is most frequently exercised by consuls and diplomats in specific countries who, in addition to their ordinary consular duties, are vested with judicial powers.
• The term is also sometimes defined as the immunity from the laws of a state enjoyed by diplomatic representatives of other states.

34. Failed State

• A nominally sovereign state that is no longer able to maintain itself as a viable political and economic unit.
• It is a state that has become ungovernable and lacks legitimacy in the eyes of the international community.
• In recent years states that have been referred to in this way include Cambodia, Haiti, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone.
• They cannot provide basic needs or essential services for their citizens, they have no functioning infrastructure, and they are without a credible system of law and order

35. Foreign Aid

• Money, food, or other resources given or lent by one country to another.
• There is a longstanding debate over the desirability and effectiveness of foreign aid from rich to poor states. Supporters of foreign aid programmes argue that aid is necessary to help capital-poor countries acquire new skills and technology.
• Foreign technical assistance spreads the benefits of scientific research, most of which is conducted by the wealthiest states in the world.
• In addition, government-to-government loans and United Nations multilateral assistance finance numerous development projects at lending rates below commercial levels.
• Critics of foreign aid have put forward a number of reasons to explain why it has not been effective in promoting development.
• Friendshoring is a strategy where a country sources the raw materials, components and even manufactured goods from countries that share its values.
• The dependence on the countries considered a “threat” to the stability of the supply chains is slowly reduced. It is also called “allyshoring”.
• For the US, Russia has long presented itself as a reliable energy partner, but in the Ukraine war, it has weaponized the gas against the people of Europe.
• It’s an example of how malicious actors can use their market positions to try to gain geopolitical leverage or disrupt trade for their own gain.
• The purpose of Frienshoring is to insulate countries’ supply chains from less like-minded nations, such as China in case of the US.

36. GENOCIDE

An endeavour to eradicate a people because of their nationality, race, ethnicity, or religion.

Article 2 of the United Nations Convention of the Punishment and Prevention of the Crime of

Genocide lists five genocidal acts:

• 1 killing members of the group;
• 2 causing serious bodily or mental arm to members of the group;
• 3 deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
• 4 imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
• 5 forcibly transferring children from the group to another group.

37. Geopolitics 

• It is the study of the effects of Earth’s geography (human and physical) on politics and international relations.
• At the level of international relations, geopolitics is a method of studying foreign policy to understand, explain and predict international political behavior through geographical variables
• Geopolitics focuses on political power linked to geographic space. In particular, territorial waters and land territory in correlation with diplomatic history.
• Topics of geopolitics include relations between the interests of international political actors focused within an area, a space, or a geographical element; relations which create a geopolitical system.

38. Hegemony

It is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others.

In international relations theory, hegemony denotes a situation of

1. great material asymmetry in favour of one state, that has
2. enough military power to systematically defeat any potential contester in the system,
3. controls the access to raw materials, natural resources, capital and markets,
4. has competitive advantages in the production of value added goods,
5. generates an accepted ideology reflecting this status quo; and
6. Is functionally differentiated from other states in the system, being expected to provide certain public goods such as security, or commercial and financial stability.

39. Humanitarian intervention

• It refers to (forcible) action by one state or a group of states in the territory of another state without the consent of the latter, undertaken on humanitarian grounds or in order to restore constitutional governance.
• It usually involves military force, but it need not. In short, the intervention is undertaken by one state or group of states on behalf of citizens in another state, often against their own government.
• Humanitarian intervention must be distinguished from humanitarian aid, whose delivery requires the consent of the receiving government. Humanitarian aid is consistent with state sovereignty. Humanitarian intervention is not.

40. Imagined Community

• It is a condition in which the people come to believe that, as individuals, they are members of a particular nation that is entitled to sovereignty over a piece of territory and can feel so loyal to their nation that they are prepared to die in its defence.
• It argues that nationalism has to be understood not in relation to self-consciously held political ideologies, but in relation to the large cultural systems that preceded it.

41. IMPERIALISM

• A policy aimed at conquering or controlling foreign people and territory.
• The essence of an imperial state is that it seeks to derive a benefit of some sort from those states and people unable to defend themselves against its superior military and/or economic force.

42. INTERDEPENDENCE

• The condition of a relationship between two parties in which the costs of breaking their relations or of reducing their exchanges are roughly equal for each of them.
• In the study of international relations, interdependence between states has two dimensions: sensitivity and vulnerability. Sensitivity refers to the degree to which states are sensitive to changes taking place in another state. O
• Vulnerability refers to the distribution of costs incurred as states react to such changes

43. ISOLATIONISM

• A political strategy committed to minimal diplomatic participation in the international system.
• The fundamental idea behind isolationism is that a state will be more secure and less prone to external interference if it limits its contact with other states.
• Indeed, the tension between isolationism and internationalism is an enduring source of controversy in American diplomacy
• Lebensraum
• The territory which a group, state, or nation believes is needed for its natural development.
• Following Adolf Hitler’s rise to power, Lebensraumbecame an ideological principle of Nazism and provided justification for the German territorial expansion into Central and Eastern Europe.

44. LOOSE NUKES

• Nuclear material that has been stolen from installations and military bases in the former Soviet Union and offered for sale on the black market.
• This material includes warheads, weapons components, and fissile material such as highly enriched uranium (HEU) and weapons-grade plutonium.
• The implications of ‘loose nukes’ are quite terrifying, particularly if they fell into the hands of terrorist organisations because this would automatically give them enormous political leverage

45. Mercantilism

• The economic theory that trade generates wealth and is stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances, which a government should encourage by means of protectionism.
• Mercantilism is an economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. It promotes imperialism, tariffs and subsidies on traded goods to achieve that goal.
• These policies aim to reduce a possible current account deficit or reach a current account surplus.
• Mercantilism includes measures aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods.
• Historically, such policies frequently led to war and also motivated colonial expansion. Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over time

46. Mercenary

• A mercenary, sometimes known as a soldier of fortune, is an individual who takes part in military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military.
• Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rather than for political interests.
• In many countries, ruling authorities seek intervention by outside states even at times asking the Great Powers to intervene. However, the great powers at times are reluctant seeing the cost benefit analysis.
• Sometimes they even seek intervention by United Nations peacekeeping forces. Given the difficulties of gaining consent by warring factions and the reluctance of troop-contributing states to provide forces and funding, this is often not a realistic option.
• Thus it is not surprising that many governments are turning to the private sector in search of services traditionally provided by the public sector.

47. MULTILATERALISM

• This term refers to three characteristics or principles underlying relations among states or groups of states and other actors in specific issue areas (particularly trade). The principles are non-discrimination, indivisibility, and diffuse reciprocity.
• Although it is often argued that multilateral forms of cooperation provided the basis for the expansion of global trade in the second half of the twentieth century, today Regional Trade Arrangements are proliferating.

48. NATION-STATE

• Nations and states may seem identical, but they are not.
• States govern people in a territory with boundaries. They have laws, taxes, officials, currencies, postal services, police, and (usually) armies. They wage war, negotiate treaties, put people in prison, and regulate life in thousands of ways. They claim sovereignty within their territory.
• By contrast, nations are groups of people claiming common bonds like language, culture, and historical identity. Some groups claiming to be nations have a state of their own, like the French, Dutch, Egyptians, and Japanese. Others want a state but do not have one: Tibetans, Chechnyans, and Palestinians, for example.

49. Nationalism

• Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference, that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power.
• It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity—based on shared social characteristics of culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics, religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history.
• Nationalism, therefore, seeks to preserve and foster a nation’s traditional cultures.
• It also encourages pride in national achievements, and is closely linked to patriotism.
• Nationalism is often combined with other ideologies, such as conservatism or socialism.

50. Newly Industrialized Countries

• A group of countries in East Asia that has achieved remarkably high rates of growth over the past 40 years. Often referred to as the ‘Asian tigers’ or the ‘four dragons’, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan have demonstrated that it is possible for some former Third World economies to develop into economic and industrial giants.

51. Nuclear Umbrella

• A nuclear umbrellais a guarantee by a nuclear weapons state to defend a non-nuclear allied state. The context is usually the security alliances of the United States with Japan, South Korea, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (much of Europe, Turkey, Canada), and Australia, originating with the Cold War with the Soviet Union.
• For some countries, it was an alternative to acquiring nuclear weapons themselves; other alternatives include regional nuclear-weapon-free zones or nuclear sharing.

52. Para Diplomacy

• It introduces the idea of decentralisation of political power to make regional governments prominent actors in the international sphere.

53. Peace-Enforcement 

• Peace enforcement is the use of military force to compel peace in a conflict, generally against the will of combatants. To do this, it generally requires more military force than peacekeeping operations.
• The United Nations, through its Security Council per Chapter VII of its charter, has the ability to authorize force to enforce its resolutions and ceasefires already created.

54. UN Peacekeeping 

• Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role held by the Department of Peace Operations as “a unique and dynamic instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions for lasting peace”. 
• Peacekeeping operations are normally set up by the Security Council, which decides the operation’s size, its timeframe, and its mandate.
• Since the UN has no military or civilian police force of its own, member states decide whether to participate in a mission, and if so, what personnel and equipment they are willing to offer.
• Military and civilian personnel in peacekeeping operations remain members of their own national establishments but serve under the operational control of the UN, and they are expected to conduct themselves in accordance with the exclusively international character of their mission.

55. Phoney War

• A period or time, during which people or government are officially at War but are not in fact fighting.

56. PRE-EMPTION

• Pre-emption constitutes one of the central tenets of the Bush doctrine. In international relations, pre-emption or preventive war refers to a state’s willingness and ability to attack another state that poses an imminent threat to its national security.

57. PREVENTIVE DIPLOMACY

• The main focus of preventive diplomacy is to identify and respond to brewing conflicts in order to prevent the outbreak of violence.
• Supporters of preventive diplomacy believe that conflicts are easier to resolve before they become violent. Once a violent conflict has erupted, it is extremely difficult to bring it to an end.
• Preventive diplomacy offers the possibility of avoiding much of the pain and suffering associated with violent conflict and the hurting stalemate that so often follows violence.

58. Prisoner’s Dilemma

The prisoner’s dilemma is a standard example of a game analysed in game theory that shows why two completely rational individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so.

59. Public Goods

• Public goods are recognised as having benefits that cannot easily be confined to a single buyer or set of buyers. Yet once they are provided, many can enjoy them for free.

60. Rapprochement

• Rapprochement means resumption of good relations after a conflict of irritation in relationship.
  • India-Nepal Relations
  • Indi-Maldives Relations

61. REGIONALISM

• This term refers to intensifying political and/or economic processes of cooperation among states and other actors in particular geographic regions (Eg ASEAN, EU etc).
• In international relations, regionalism is the expression of a common sense of identity and purpose combined with the creation and implementation of institutions that express a particular identity and shape collective action within a geographical region.
• Regionalism is one of the three constituents of the international commercial system.

62. ROGUE STATE

• A state that regularly violates international standards of acceptable behaviour.
• Over the last decade Afghanistan, Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, and North Korea have all been given this highly pejorative label.
• It evokes images of a state that is outwardly aggressive, a threat to international peace, highly repressive, xenophobic, and arrogant, and which has no regard for the norms of international society.

63. Sanctions

• Many people consider sanctions a peaceful and effective means to enforce international law.
• Under Article 41 of the United Nations (UN) Charter, the Security Council may call on member states to apply measures not involving the use of armed force to give effect to its decisions.
• Typically, sanctions cut off trade and investments, preventing a target country from buying or selling goods in the global marketplace. Sanctions may aim at particular items like arms or oil.
• They may cut off air traffic, suspend or drastically curtail diplomatic relations, block movement of persons, bar investments, or freeze international bank deposits.
• Sanctions can be imposed unilaterally or multilaterally. US as a nation is known for imposing large number of unilateral sanctions. Once UN sanctions are in place, a Sanctions committee of the Security Council, which operates secretively, supervises them.

64. Shuttle Diplomacy

• It is a type of diplomacy wherein which a third country or an outside party is serving as an intermediary between the countries having a dispute.
• It happens generally when, the conflicting countries do not take part in direct negotiations. In this scenario, the third party travels from one state to other state to settle the issue. When this type of diplomacy is involved it is called Shuttle Diplomacy.

65. Soft Power

• Soft poweris the ability to attract and co-opt, rather than coerce (contrast hard power).
• Power in international relations has traditionally been understood in the context of military and economic might.
  • It is known as Hard power (which is quantifiable)
  • Hard power is deployed in theform of coercion: using force, the threat of force, economic sanctions etc.
• In contrast to the coercive nature of Hard power, Joseph Nye suggested concept of soft power in post cold war world
  • Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction.
  • The three pillars of soft power are: political values, culture, and foreign policy.
  • Nye argues that successful states need both hard and soft power, the ability to coerce others as well as the ability to shape their long-term attitudes and preferences.
    • For Instance, The United States can dominate others, but it has also excelled in projecting soft power, with the help of its companies, foundations, universities, churches, and other institutions of civil society.

What are India’s Dimensions of Soft Power?

India is unique country to be bestowed with multidimensional soft power. for eg:

• Ayurveda
• Buddhism
• Cricket, Culture
• Democracy, Diaspora, Hydro Diplomacy
• Entertainment: Bollywood
• Food (Indian style of cooking and spices)
• Gandhian ideals
• Colonial historical linkages with the nations
• Yoga

Hard Power

• Hard poweris coercive power executed through military threats and economic inducements and based on tangible resources such as the army or economic strength. For E.g. America imposing sanctions on Iran.

Smart Power

• Using soft power or hard power according to the requirement.

Sharp Power

• Using manipulative diplomacy to influence the targeted country towards your goal is called Sharp Power.

66. Sovereignty

• Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from outside sources or bodies.
• In international law, sovereignty is the exercise of power by a state. 
• The concept of sovereignty originated with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, when governments ceased to support co-religionists in conflict.
• Thus the extraterritorial authority of the Roman Church in particular was severely weakened, giving rise to the development of the secular nation-state.

67. Super Power

• The term ‘superpower’ implies that there is a hierarchy of power among states.
• It is a state that plays a crucial leadership role in the international system and is able to gain the allegiance of other states.
• Within its sphere of influence, a superpower can impose its political will on smaller states with relative impunity.
• Not only does a superpower have the capacity to project effective military power far from its territory, but it also has enormous military resources at its disposal.
• Finally, one might argue that a superpower has special duties with respect to the maintenance of international order and holds a privileged status in international forums such as the United Nations.

69. Third World

• This term is used (loosely) to refer to the economically underdeveloped countries of Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin America, considered as an entity with common characteristics, such as poverty, high birth-rates, and economic dependence on the advanced countries.
• The First World is the developed world – US, Canada, Western Europe, Japan – and the newly industrialising countries (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan), Australia and New Zealand.
• The Second World is the ex-communist world led by the former Soviet Union (USSR).
• With the demise of the USSR and the communist bloc, there is of course no longer a Second World.
• The Third World is the underdeveloped world – agrarian, rural, and poor.
• Many Third World countries have one or two developed cities, but the rest of the country is poor.
• Many parts of Central and Eastern Europe should probably be considered part of the Third World.

70. Fourth World

The term ‘Fourth World’ applies to some of the very poorest countries, especially in Africa, that have no industrialisation, are almost entirely agrarian (based on subsistence farming), and have little or no hope of industrialising and competing in the world market.

71. UNILATERALISM

• Unilateralism is a process in which one state acts independently of other states to implement and enforce its foreign policy objectives.
• Unilateralism, in this sense, is closely tied to promoting the national interests of one state, even if it means unduly disrupting the peace and security achieved on other issues.
• It should also be noted that only under certain conditions of self-defence does international law, or the UN Charter in this case, sanction unilateral actions.

72. Wolf Warrior Diplomacy

• Wolf warrior diplomacy describes an aggressive style of diplomacy adopted by Chinese diplomats in the 21st century, under Chinese leader Xi Jinping’s administration.
• Dubbed “wolf-warrior diplomacy,” this new approach seems popular inside China and reinforces a presumed transition of Chinese diplomacy from conservative, passive, and low-key to assertive, proactive, and high-profile.

INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY AND PRINCIPLES

Ministry of External Affairs: Agency that conducts the Foreign Relations

The Ministry of External Affairs is the Indian government’s agency responsible for the foreign relations of India. The Minister of External Affairs holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers.

Subrahmanyam Jaishankar is current Minister of External Affairs. The Ministry has a Minister of State V Muraleedharan.

The Indian Foreign Secretary is the head of Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and therefore, serves as the head of all Indian (ambassadors) and high commissioners.

Core Institutions that aid in Foreign Policy

• FP bears the stamp of the ideological underpinnings of the PM, this is primarily due to the fact that the External Affairs ministry for a long time was under the PM directly after the Independence of the country.
• The PMO Office, while supporting the PM also contributes in shaping the Foreign Policy of our country.
• The External Affairs Ministry has evolved to be the most important executive arm of the government in shaping its Foreign Policy.
• Political Party in Power also casts a shadow on the International relations showcasing its historical legacy of friends and foes in dealing with various countries on the international platform.
• It’s a blend of Actors, Personality Politics, Neurological impulses and institutional support. Institutional influence on the execution of the Foreign Policy is above the personal diplomacy of the leader many a times.
• The long culture of the country manifests in the form of institutional functioning which may supplement the leaders charismatic personality or even negate the thoughtless misadventures at times.

Foreign Relations during the Ancient Times

During 5th century B.C, ancient India was in connection with Rome. Herodotus in his book Histories gives information about the ancient India’s relations with Roman and Greek Rulers.

A book called Natural Historica written by Pliny in first century A.D. gives the picture of trade links between India and Italy. This gives us clarity that India has been connected to Europe through trade, politics and maritime connection for more than 2000 years now.

Various artifacts, merchandise, trading and coin exchange have been found which give us ample of evidence that the connections were strong and consistent. Along with Europe, ancient India had connections with China for more than 1500 years now.

This is supported by the evidence we found in accounts written by famous Chinese travelers to India namely Fa-Hien, Hieun Tsang and It-sing.

1. Fa-hien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II.
2. Hieun Tsang visited India during the reign of Harshvardhan.
3. It-sing in his book ‘A record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago’ tells about his education at Nalanda.

Two important scriptures of India, Ramayana and Mahabharata were the strong foundations of Foreign Relations of Ancient India.

When Lord Rama ruled the land of India almost 7000 years ago, he developed relations with other countries on spiritual grounds. According to Ramayana, India had relationship with Sri Lanka on the basis of religion and spirituality. The relations sustain even today

How does Past influence Indian Foreign Policy

• US has had a past which is based on violence. The past is American Revolution. The Birth is the result of a civil war and it tries to champion the cause of Democracy.
• The past of the US influences its behaviour. It displays bullying attitude.
• China born as a result of Chinese Revolution – 1949 Civil War.
• Past not only explains the present behaviour, it also explains the future behaviour.
• US will never treat people equally. Indira Gandhi disturbed this. She wanted US to engage with India on equal terms.
• Russian President : Vladimir Putin
• Israel – Jews (Historically Persecuted) – Why? Most Hardworking and developed Economically – resulting in Insecurity. Still they lived and prospered. They now live in a territory where they never historically lived.
• The importance of Past is that it helps in understanding the present behaviour of a state and helps in assessing the future behaviour the state ought to display.

How does Geography influence Indian Foreign Policy

• Resource : The abundance of the resources attracted the foreign invaders to India. Be it natural resources or richness of our religious temples or kingdoms, all attracted the negative eyes of these invaders.
• Gradually, the traders turned our masters with the sole intention to plunder our resources and left the country at the crossroads of peril.
• Location : Even location wise India is located on a Geo-Political landscape en-route of the world trading routes. The possession of India provided them with access to the strategic trade routes and control of the choke points of trade.

Role of Diaspora in India’s Foreign Relations

As many as 44 million people of Indian origin live and work abroad and constitute an important link with the mother country. An important role of India’s foreign policy has been to ensure their welfare and wellbeing within the framework of the laws of the country where they live.

Historically the Indian Diaspora has been effectively used to coerce, ice breaking and also bridging the cultural gap between India and the other countries. The Indian Diaspora has emerged as an important pillar of its Foreign Policy.

Indophilia or Indomania is love, admiration or special interest for India or its people and culture. Indophile is someone who loves India, Indian culture, cuisine, religions, history or its people.

What are the Moral Aspects of India’s Foreign Policy?

Panchsheel (Five Virtues): They were formally enunciated in the Agreement on Trade between the Tibet region of China and India signed on April 29, 1954, and later evolved to act as the basis of conduct of international relations globally.

These Five Principles are:

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
2. Mutual non-aggression
3. Mutual non-interference
4. Equality and mutual benefit
5. Peaceful co-existence

Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (The World is One Family): It is based on the concept of Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas.

In other words, India views the entire world community as a single large global family, where members live in harmony, work and grow together, and have trust in one another.

Proactive and Impartial Assistance: India does not hesitate in promoting democracy wherever potential exists.

This is done by proactively providing assistance in capacity building and strengthening the institutions of democracy, albeit with the explicit consent of the concerned Government. (Ex. Afghanistan).

Global Problem-Solving Approach: India advocates a global debate and global consensus on issues of global dimensions such as world trade regime, climate change, terrorism, intellectual property rights, global governance, health hazards.

Under the Vaccine diplomacy initiative, India exported 60 million doses, half on commercial terms and 10 million as grants.

Approach to India’s Foreign Policy?

1. Promoting  national  interest  is  the  basic  objective  of  foreign  policy.
2. Balancing Internal and External Development
3. Pouring Ethical Values in Foreign Policy
4. Policy Evolution Along with Maintaining Basic Principles
5. Shaping the Global Agenda
6. Diplomacy for Development
7. Non-Reciprocity
8. Realistic Intention to help
9. Collective Approach to Tackle Environmental Issues

How does India’s Foreign Policy Reflect Its Active National Interest?

India First Policy: With 75 years of independence, the country has a greater sense of confidence and optimism in articulating an “India First” foreign policy. India decides for itself, and its independent foreign policy cannot be subject to intimidations.

Realistic Diplomacy: Today’s self-confident India has a new voice in the global firmament, rooted in its domestic realities and civilizational ethos, as well as firm in the pursuit of its vital interests.

Maintaining Balance of Power to its Advantage: From being the only global power to challenge China’s Belt and Road Initiative as far back as 2014 to responding to Chinese military aggression with a strong military pushback.

Growing Economic Ties: Since India’s economic interdependence with the rest of the world deepens, it has become more observant of markets for its products, sources of raw materials, and potential recipients of its expanding foreign aid.

Multi Aligned Approach: From the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (the Quad) to the BRICS, there is a long list of memberships that India holds.

Intervention over Interference: India does not believe in interference in the internal affairs of other countries.

What are the Challenges to India’s Foreign Policy?

Limitations of its military instruments

Diffidence in wielding coercive power acts

Russia Ukraine Issue: It is certainly a complex international political issue when countries like India find it difficult to choose between politics and moral imperative.

Russia is a trade partner, and it has leverage in the Eurasian region, and by going directly against Russia, India will jeopardize its interests in the region.

As realist prudence demands, India cannot simply undertake a moralist standpoint on Russia-Ukraine Conflict and ignore the dictates of politics.

Internal Challenges: A country cannot be powerful abroad if it is weak at home.

India’s soft power assets make sense when they are supported by its hard power.

Former President of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam repeatedly made the case that India can play an effective role on the world stage when it is strong internally as well as externally.

Refugee Crisis: In spite of not being a party to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol, India has been one of the largest recipients of refugees in the world.

The challenge here is to balance protection of human rights and national interest. As the Rohingya crisis unfolds, there is still a lot that India can do to facilitate the finding of long-term solutions.

These actions will be key in determining India’s regional and global standing on human rights.

FOREIGN POLICY UNDER VARIOUS PMS

National Interests

• “The meaning of national interest is survival—the protection of physical, political and cultural identity against encroachments by other nation-states”
• The foreign policy of each nation is formulated on the basis of its national interest and it is always at work for securing its goals. It is a universally accepted right of each state to secure its national interests. A state always tries to justify its actions on the basis of its national interest.
• The behaviour of a state is always conditioned and governed by its national interests. Hence it is essential for us to know the meaning and content of National Interest.
• Hitler justified expansionist policies in the name of “German national interests.”
• The US presidents have always justified their decisions to go in for the development of more and more destructive weapons in the interest of “US national interest.”
• China justified its border disputes with India and the Soviet Union in the name of attempts to secure the national interests of China.

Methods for the securing of National Interests

• Diplomacy
• Propaganda
• Economic Means
• Alliances and Treaties
• Coercive Means

While formulating the goals and objectives of national interest, all the nations must make honest attempts to make these compatible with the international interests of Peace, Security environmental protection, protection of human rights and Sustainable Development.

Grand Strategy

• It is an aggregation of national resources and national capacity of a country.
• It includes a combination of military, diplomatic, political, economic, cultural and moral capabilities a nation deploys in the service of national security.
• A grand strategy is all about protection of domestic values.
• Every State has certain values and to uphold these values are the primary goals of every state.
• But as a state cannot protect all values, it resorts to satisfactorily protecting the few it holds the most sacred.
• In case these values are threatened by a state or a non state actor, how the state deploys its resources to protect these values is known as Grand Strategy

Strategic Culture

• Culture is the set of behaviour, belief, values and symbols that have been developed retained and handed over to the next generations in history. Strategic culture, therefore, is the set of the same in the context of the state behaviour in the matters considered as strategic.
• The sources of the strategic culture of a nation-state are its geography, history, national culture, politics, economics, technology, etc.
• The strategic can be understood in many ways as it has become a multidisciplinary term due to its importance for achieving a goal. But, strategic in its traditional meaning in International Politics/Relations has been primarily related to the military goals of a nation-state. 
• The way a country responds to an external threat is called as a Strategic Culture.
• This hel
• ps as a deterrent strategy as the enemy knows the level of retaliation.

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “Jawaharlal Nehru”

Characteristics of Cold War

1. Security Alliances
2. Adversial Diplomacy
3. Arms Race
4. Bipolar Global Configuration
5. Brinkmanship
6. Assertive Intervention
7. Unrelieved Hostility

Non-Alignment

• Non-Alignment was India’s response to the Cold War. The focus was on having healthy engagement with World based on national interests. Under Non-Alignment India retained the power to take decisions based on autonomy and national interests and contributed to world peace by staying away from the Arms Race, yet challenged the Core Fundamentals of the Bipolar World.
• Non-Alignment acted as a global stabilizer and reflected India’s latent leadership ambitions.

Core of the Non-Alignment

• Interact with all nations but stay away from power politics
• Resolve all international disputes peacefully
• Emerge as a third force and not a third bloc
• Serve own national interests
• Re-distribute global resources for economic development
• Maintain your distinct identity and autonomy in Foreign Policy
• Have faith in UNO

Non-Alignment – What the countries agreed to follow

• Independent Course of action in their Foreign Policy
• Commonly oppose Colonialism, apartheid, racialism and imperialism
• Will not join military blocs and not conclude military specific treaties
• Not to allow superpowers to use their territories as military bases.
• Strive for world peace
• Not to resort to any form of Arms Race
• Put up a Common cause of the Third World countries
• Strive for “New International Economic Order”
• Enhance the bargaining power of the Global South over the Global North.

Steps to revive the spirit of Non-Alignment in the Post Cold War Era

• As a forum to bring consensus on the IPR issue
• As a forum to bring consensus on the Historical Responsibility on Polluting the World by the North and a consensus on Environmental Policy.
• As a platform to seek better bargain for the nuclear resources
• As a forum to bring balance in the representation in the forums like United States, World Bank, IMF & WTO etc.

National Interest : 1 – Industrial Development will advance India’s International Image

National Interest : 2 – Potential of India as a Great Power through Non-Alignment

National Interest : 3 – Prevent Subjugation of India to a foreign rule again

National Interest : 4 – Preservation of International Peace

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “Lal Bahadur Shastri”

• He was the PM for a very short period of time.
• He was known to be an idealist, however, gave utmost importance to the national interests above all.
• His FP was greatly concerned with Security imperative.
• Shastri Continued the tradition of Non-Alignment. However, when he was confronted with a challenge to the Sovereignty of India, he ordered the military to retaliate and ensure that adversary gets the message strongly that challenge to India’s territorial Sovereignty and Integrity shall not be accepted.
• Therefore, India’s FP adopted Global Welfarism as a goal. This outlook of FP has remained in tact till today, and in years to come it will only get broadened.

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “Indira Gandhi”

• During the Period of Indira Gandhi, the essence of Non-Alignment remained the same, but it was given new character.
• She transformed Non-alignment by giving it an economic Colour.
• Non-Alignment will be used for helping development in other countries. This is something Nehru has never said, because at that time India’s position was something different. That is the reason why his focus was in convincing people to stay independent.
• However, by 1970s India developed some capabilities.
• This is the time when we saw shift in the leadership aspiration of India. We will offer developmental support. So that it contributes to larger global welfare.
• Therefore, India’s FP adopted Global Welfarism as a goal. This outlook of FP has remained in tact till today, and in years to come it will only get broadened.
• In her FP she also said India has Global Power Aspirations.
• While the domestic economy became more inward, the foreign policy economics became outward.
• With this we can say that the IFP was dynamic in nature and not influenced by the Domestic Economic Policy.

National Interest : 1 – Equality as a basis for Global Engagement

National Interest : 2 – India as a Military Power

National Interest : 3 – Foreign Policy based on the Merit of each situation

Conditions when “Rajiv Gandhi” became PM & his Core FP

• One thing we need to understand here that he came at a very volatile time.
• The challenges that he had were very different from the challenges that his predecessors had.
• Focus should be on a liberal economy. It will make the domestic economy outward and will fasten India’s development. If development picks up we will modify our global aspirations.
• Focus should be on engaging with anyone who can fasten our development. This was a departure from the past. This led to enhancing India’s ties with US and China. The objective of the engagement was more driven by the National Interest of India.
• India is a dominant power of the region. India will assert power. The fear was that India never defined this region. It was left to the wild interpretations of others. However, the neighbours didn’t like this stand of India.
• If an adversary develops nuclear capability, so will India.

National Interest : 1 – Blend of Idealism and Realism

National Interest : 2 – Policy of “Enlightened Self-Interests”

• Rajiv Gandhi infused pragmatism in FP by giving primacy to national interests. Secondly, he focussed on FP engagement with all states that could enable India achieve faster development.
• The reason for prioritising faster development was to bring about a shift in India’s aspirations.
• However, he stated that if adversaries develop unique capabilities to challenge Indian Sovereignty, then India shall not stay away from exploring the same.
• This reflected India’s rising dominance in the region.

An Overview of the FP during the Cold War (1945-1991)

1. Firstly during the Cold War, the IFP was not only pragmatic but was also responsive in nature.
2. India was open to changes in the FP as a response to change in the international environment.
3. India’s foreign policy also changed with changing security concerns. Primarily, safeguarding India’s sovereignty was the key concern.
4. Both concerns of breaking the country and colonising the country were the concerns.
5. That is the reason why we see that during the Cold War, the IFP focussed more on the security.

Core Features of the IFP during the Cold War

• Security was Primacy
• National Interest had primacy
• Well being of people mattered
• Sharing development strategy
• FP dynamic to international changes
• Pragmatism

Background when “P V Narasimha Rao” became PM

• Struggling International Environment
• This resulted in uncertainty in the IFP
• Indian Economy was going through a crisis period. In this background the government changed the economic principles.
• Post Cold War also affected India at the Strategic level as well. This resulted in insecurity. India had to decide the future of our security. Based on imports from Russia or some other countries (diversify).
• Choices have to be made and certain hard decisions to be made (Economic and Strategic Paradigm).
• This resulted in deepening ties with US to learn from them both at economic and strategic level. This resulted in Strategic Diversification.
• This is reasons for India’s deeper engagement with countries like France, Japan and Israel.
• Experiential learning in FP.

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “P V Narasimha Rao”

National Interest : 1 – Economic Reforms and the Rise of Economic Diplomacy

Rao became the PM at uncertain international times. With the ending of Cold War, he directed IFP to adopt to radical changes. He infused open economy as a key source of guiding IFP.

He resorted to strategic diversification due to uncertainty caused by the disintegration of USSR.

The strategic diversification and need for experimental economic diplomacy led Rao to deepen ties with US and its friends and allies.

The Look East Policy of India in 1993, has to be seen in this larger changing strategic canvas.

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “I K Gujral”

National Interest : 1 – Gujral Doctrine

Grand Strategy

• He opined that neighbourhood should be the focus. He said that the key to India’s growth is a stable neighbourhood.
• He opined India being a dominant power in the South Asia, should not look for arithmetical reciprocation from the minor states. He opined that our growth should not lead to insecurity, rather it should inspire confidence.
• He opined by following this India would come closer to its neighbouring states and accordingly distance them from our adversaries.
• He even instructed to dismantle all human assets in Pakistan for covert operations. He felt that these tools would hinder constructive engagement with Pakistan. He can be called too idealistic.
• He brought the element of Altruism in Foreign Policy.

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “A B Vajpayee”

National Interest : 1 – India must get its rightful place in the comity of Nations and International Institutions

Grand Strategy

• India carried out its Thermonuclear Tests at Pokhran – Shakti I-V India asserted that the tensions from the Regional players forced India to undergo these tests.

National Interest : 2 – Indian Diaspora to act as Brand Ambassadors of India Abroad

Grand Strategy

• His tenure saw visit of the US President Bill Clinton, which resulted in deepening of Economic ties. The Indian Diaspora also played a critical role in negating the negative effects of US Sanctions on India post the Pokhran Tests. This Bonhomie also continued after Clinton, during the Bush Administration.
• India went closer to US and it shared lot of information related to the International Terrorism and the means and way to fight it. India extended all possible support to the US and its allies in the “Global War on Terrorism”(GWOT).

Core Principles of Indian Foreign Policy followed by “Manmohan Singh”

National Interest : 1 – India to resort to Great Power Diplomacy

Grand Strategy

• The Diplomatic victory with the Chinese resulted in the reopening of the Nathula Pass which is an important place for bilateral trade with China Today.
• The FP during his times also resulted in deepening of military ties with Russia and also simultaneously engaging with the US in Nuclear Energy. His Diplomatic skills also forced USA to accept India as a Major Power in the future.
• The Economy also saw great heights with the highest GDP growths in the recent times in Indian History. His Economic Craftsmanship also saved India majorly from the GFC.

National Interest : 2 – India to resort to Development Diplomacy and Energy Diplomacy

Grand Strategy

• Deepening of India’s relationship with the ASEAN states where the relationship was elevated to the level of Strategic Partnership
• Singh also invested tremendous diplomatic capital to strengthen ties with Japan, the fruits of which India is enjoying even today.
• The ties with West Asia also saw resurgence with the Oil Diplomacy. India also signed the Strategic Partnership with Saudi Arabia.
• The ties with Africa also improved with initiatives ranging from Focus Africa Program to Pan-Africa-e-Network Projects.
• India’s increased engagement with QATAR brought LNG supply to India for its energy security.
• The foreign policy of India also saw India emerge as one of the lead players in the reconstruction of Afghanistan.

India’s Foreign Policy under Narendra Modi

• Strong Personal Relationships
• India First Diplomacy
• Samvad eventually emerged as a key pillar of his Foreign Policy

Narendra Modi Personal Relationships

National Interest: 1 – Modi Doctrine – India First

Grand Strategy

• Retail Diplomacy
• Personal Diplomacy
• Cultural and Civilizational Diplomacy

National Interest: 2 – Indian Diaspora as a bridge between India and the World

Grand Strategy

• Diaspora is oxygen to his Foreign Policy
• Diaspora as a catalyst for transformative Diplomacy
• Focus on the use of Diaspora for domestic development
• Reversal from brain drain to brain gain
• Diaspora as part of great Indian Family

National Interest: 3 – Economic Diplomacy as a Key to Great Power Status

Grand Strategy

• Foreign Policy is driven by the economic thrust of making India a leading Commercial Power.
• Domestic initiatives along with Geo-Strategic Imperatives arising out of external engagement are a key to India’s growth story.

National Interest: 4 – Soft Power is India’s Power

Grand Strategy

• He has been successful in showcasing the Soft Power of India to the external world better than any PM in the past.
• His success in getting 21 June declared as International Yoga Day is a classic example of his diplomatic acumen.
• He has also been successful in getting the SAARC countries along to tackle global issues like COVID-19

National Interest: 5 – Neighbourhood is the key to Global Power Aspirations

Grand Strategy

• Neighbourhood First Policy-with benefits shared by all will remove the tag of “Big Brother” from India.
• Aim to develop India as a Collaborative Ally.

National Interest: 6 – Faith Diplomacy

Grand Strategy

• Generally, Religion is kept put of Foreign Policy engagements. However, Modi has initiated a new diplomatic path of using Religion, as a tool to promote Global Harmony. E.g., Mongolia, China.
• With the help of Buddhism, India is trying to reinforce its leadership in South East Asia.

National Interest: 7 – Strategy of Omi Alignment

Grand Strategy

• “Strategic Autonomy” in place of “Non-Alignment”.
• India is such a big power today that it cannot be part of any political-military camp.
• Indo-Pacific as an inclusive bloc of pluralism and co-existence.
• Co-operation of rivals in Asia alone can secure stability in the region.

National Interest: 8 – India as a rising power or a Middle Power

Grand Strategy

Three Inflexion points in the last 20 years

1. The Nuclear Explosions in 1998.
2. US-India Civil Nuclear Deal
3. Abrogation of Article 370.

The Strategic Six Spots

• Focus on Pluralism in international relations
• Focus on Pragmatic cooperation with other states
• Focus on convergence on national interests with many powers but congruence with no power
• Focus on accommodation
• Establishing a Foreign Policy which is not based purely on transnationalism but values Creating a world where internationalism and nationalism co-exist.

HISTORICAL GENSIS OF FOREIGN POLICY

• The Ministry of External Affairs (India) (MEA), also known as the Foreign Ministry, is the government agency responsible for the conduct of foreign relations of India. 
• With the world’s third largest military expenditure, fourth largest armed force, fifth largest economy by GDP nominal rates and third largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity India is a prominent regional power, a nuclear power, an emerging global power and a potential superpower. India assumes a growing international influence and a prominent voice in global affairs.
• As a former British colony, India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and continues to maintain relationships with other Commonwealth countries. Since gaining independence from Britain in 1947, however, India is now classified as a newly industrialized country and has cultivated an extensive network of foreign relations with other states.
• As a member state of BRICS – a repertoire of emerging major economies that also encompasses Brazil, Russia, China and South Africa, India also exerts a salient influence as the founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. 
• In recent decades, India has pursued a more expansive foreign policy that encompasses the neighborhood first policy embodied by SAARC as well as the Look East policy to forge more extensive economic and strategic relationships with other East Asian countries.
• Moreover, India was one of the founding members of several international organizations—the United Nations, the Asian Development Bank, New Development BRICS Bank, and G-20, widely considered the main economic locus of emerging and developed nations.
• India has also played an important and influential role in other international organizations like East Asia Summit, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund (IMF), G8+5 and IBSA Dialogue Forum. India is also a member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.
• Regionally, India is a part of SAARC and BIMSTEC. India has taken part in several UN peacekeeping missions, and as of June 2020, is the fifth-largest troop contributor. India is currently seeking a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, along with the other G4 nations.
• India wields enormous influence in global affairs and can be classified as an emerging superpower.

Importance of Past in Foreign Policy

• Past=History
• It explains why a country is displaying a certain behaviour today. It showcases the values of that country.
• It also helps us to understand how it will behave in the future.
• History indelibly influences foreign policy.
• US – Behavior – Interventionist-Urge to Dominate
• The US wants other to behave either the way it behaves or the way it wants.
• Is US dominating in nature?
• Is US democratic when it engages with the world.
• The proponent of Democracy is inherently is a Dictator.
• US has had a past which is based on violence.
• The past is American Revolution. The Birth is the result of a civil war and it tries to champion the cause of Democracy.
• The past of the US influences its behaviour. It displays bullying attitude.
• China born as a result of Chinese Revolution – 1949 Civil War.
• Past not only explains the present behaviour, it also explains the future behaviour.
• E.g., US will never treat people equally. Indira Gandhi disturbed this. She wanted US to engage with India on equal terms.
• Russian President: Vladimir Putin
• Israel – Jews (Historically Persecuted) – Why? Most Hardworking and developed Economically – resulting in Insecurity. Still, they lived and prospered. They now live in a territory where they never historically lived.
• The importance of Past is that it helps in understanding the present behaviour of a state and helps in assessing the future behaviour the state ought to display.

How does India’s Past influence our Foreign Policy

What are our Past Values

• Ramayana (Case Study) – An Indian Epic – Epics have a very imp influence on a society, because epic nurtures individual behaviours and a state is a collection of individual behaviour.
• Case Actors (Ram, Sita, Hanuman and Ravana) and Case Objective (Does Ramayana offer anything relevant that influences India’s Foreign Policy). In the Epic Hanuman basically does Power Projection.
• Ramayana an ancient Indian epic, asserts tremendous importance for our Foreign Policy because an analysis of the epic states that Hanuman resorted to project power, acted as an information agent and enjoyed diplomatic immunity, something that is a core feature of diplomacy.
• Thus, India through Ramayana has contributed to evolution of good diplomatic history.
• Ancient times Power Projection was done of the individual kings. Cholas used Navy as a Power Projection in the South East Asia, especially (modern day Thailand). 

How does Geography influence Indian Foreign Policy

• Resource: The abundance of the resources attracted the foreign invaders to India. Be it natural resources or richness of our religious temples or kingdoms, all attracted the negative eyes of these invaders. Gradually, the traders turned our masters with the sole intention to plunder our resources and left the country at the cross roads of peril.
• Location: Even location wise India is located on a Geo-Political landscape enroute of the world trading routes. The possession of India provided them with access to the strategic trade routes and control of the choke points of trade.

What are the ideas of Kautilya’s Arthasasthtra on Comprehensive National Power

• It’s a textbook of Governance. Indian Treatise on Statecraft and Diplomacy.
• His ideas resonate with realism. State is the most important and legitimate instrument that enjoys sovereignty.
• The responsibility of the King is to guard his subjects and ensure their protection and survival. He advises the King to develop the Economy. This should be the primary national interest of a state.
• He also emphasises on the economic development over the military development. He also talks about inclusivity in wealth creation. Unequal wealth creation will result in resentment.
• With the increase in the wealth the power of the state rises. Creation of the Wealth and the Power improves the international stature of the state.
• India’s relations with the world have evolved since the British Raj (1857–1947), when the British Empire took responsibility for handling external and defence relations.
• When India gained independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in making or conducting foreign policy. However, the country’s oldest political party, the Indian National Congress, had established a small foreign department in 1925 to make overseas contacts and to publicize its independence struggle.
• From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had a long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress stance on international issues. As Prime Minister from 1947, Nehru articulated India’s approach to the world.
• India’s international influence varied over the years after independence. Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West.
•  Although the prestige stemmed from India’s nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations in South Asia.
• On the intensely debated Kashmir issue with Pakistan, India lost credibility by rejecting United Nations calls for a plebiscite in the disputed area.
• In the 1960s and 1970s India’s international position among developed and developing countries faded in the course of wars with China and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India’s attempt to match Pakistan’s support from the United States and China by signing the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971.
• Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which helped to strengthen the nation, India’s influence was undercut regionally and internationally by the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet presence in Afghanistan.
• In the late 1980s, India improved relations with the United States, other developed countries, and China while continuing close ties with the Soviet Union. Relations with its South Asian neighbours, especially Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry of External Affairs.
• Even before independence, the Indian colonial government maintained semi-autonomous diplomatic relations. It had colonies (such as the Aden Settlement), who sent and received full missions, India was a founder member of both the League of Nations and the United Nations. After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution. 
• The partition and various territorial disputes, particularly that over Kashmir, would strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come. During the Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power bloc. However, India developed close ties with the Soviet Union and received extensive military support from it.
• The end of the Cold War significantly affected India’s foreign policy, as it did for much of the world. The country now seeks to strengthen its diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, the European Union trading bloc, Japan, Israel, Mexico, and Brazil. India has also forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the African Union, the Arab League and Iran.
• Though India continues to have a military relationship with Russia, Israel has emerged as India’s second largest military partner while India has built a strong strategic partnership with the United States. The foreign policy of Narendra Modi indicated a shift towards focusing on the Asian region and, more broadly, trade deals.

What are the Core Values Indian Foreign Policy believes in

• Preference for the Middle Way/Path
• Blend of Idealism and Realism
• Value of Tolerance
• Absence of Imperialistic Traditions
• Express positive ideas through negative terms

Core Institutions that aid in Foreign Policy

• FP bears the stamp of the ideological underpinnings of the PM, this is primarily due to the fact that the External Affairs ministry for a long time was under the PM directly after the Independence of the country.
• The PMO Office, while supporting the PM also contributes in shaping the Foreign Policy of our country.
• The External Affairs Ministry has evolved to be the most important executive arm of the government in shaping its Foreign Policy.
• Political Party in Power also casts a shadow on the International relations showcasing its historical legacy of friends and foes in dealing with various countries on the international platform.
• It’s a blend of Actors, Personality Politics, Neurological impulses and institutional support. Institutional influence on the execution of the Foreign Policy is above the personal diplomacy of the leader many a times. The long culture of the country manifests in the form of institutional functioning which may supplement the leaders charismatic personality or even negate the thoughtless misadventures at times.

Structural Changes in MEA in 2020

Corporate like Verticals

• Economic Diplomacy Vertical
• Trade Diplomacy Vertical
• Development Partnership Vertical
• Emerging Technology Vertical
• External Publicity Vertical
• Cultural Diplomacy Vertical
• Indian Ocean and Indian-Pacific Vertical

Mains Question

1. Discuss the role of History in shaping the Foreign Policy of a Nation with Examples? (250 Words) 15 Marks
2. Explain how the principles propounded by Kautilya’s Arthasastra are relevant even in today’s context? (150 Words) 10 Marks
3. How do the Core Values of the Indian Foreign Policy influence our relations with the rest of the world? (150 Words) 10 Marks
4. Give a brief overview of the evolution of India’s Foreign Policy? (150 Words) 10 Marks
5. Does Ramayana offer anything relevant that influences India’s Foreign Policy (150 Words) 10 Marks

INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD POLICY

Historical Perspective of India’s Regional Policy

• Before Independence: India under British had an extended period of India’s regional primacy. As the regional expression of the then sole superpower, British Raj exercised a hegemony not only over the littoral neighbourhood but across the Indian ocean region.
  • On the continental side, the British Raj surrounded itself with a series of buffer states and protectorates and often projected military power beyond them.
  • Also, the Indian Ocean was dominated by the Royal Navy and the Indian Army. This allowed the British to develop new port cities (from Aden to Hong Kong) and construct trans-regional connectivity through roads and railways.
• The British followed a policy of buffer states.
• The policy was double line of defence and reverse slopes. The objective was to keep Russian advances at Bay.
• In order to maintain status quo, British practiced policy of reverse slopes in Tibet, Nepal, Ahom Kingdom and Burma.
• Afghanistan was left as a buffer state.

After Independence: 

• India inherited the British Frontiers
• The security conception was more regional than global. India desired a stable neighbourhood.
• A Cold War player at the doorsteps
• Restricted space the exercise Non-Alignment.
• India lacked resources to ensure regional stability.
• It doesn’t mean India was completely unsuccessful, Burma remained Non-Aligned, Nepal and Bhutan though didn’t join the NAM, but showcased similar FP tentacles.
• Also Vietnam after its unification remained non aligned though officially never joined it.
• Pakistan, China and Sri Lanka brought Cold War to the door steps.
• The problem solving diplomacy of India was a mixture of Bilateralism and internationalism
• When it came to Pakistan, India’s approach was internationalism. 1947 War, India took matter to UN, on the belief that these organisations are impartial.
• However, the approach changed after our beliefs got shattered, when we realised that these organisations are biased to the countries that fund them.
• But when it comes to China, India’s approach was bilateralism. The frontier issue with China was a bilateral issue as India inherited the British Frontiers on Independence.
• Therefore India’s Policy was a mix of Internationalism and Bilateralism.

Neighbourhood Policy of India from Nehru to Modi

Neighbourhood Policy of India by Nehru

• Nehru adopted a Global Strategy of Non-Alignment (India tried to position itself as a neutral force in the era of Bi-polarity)
• His objective was to keep the cold war away from the doorsteps of India. However, a partial success was achieved in this policy as Pakistan and China became active participants in the Cold War.
• At the problem-solving level, India practised a mixture of bilateralism and internationalism. India asserted the need for exercising power in Indian Ocean, perceived by India as its strategic backyard.

Neighbourhood Policy of India under Indira

• Indira Gandhi favoured bilateralism over internationalisation in problem solving diplomacy
• Fraught with Contradictions
  • India clung with Balance of Power and Sphere of Influence regionally, but rejected the same on international front.
  • India provided security to small nations but opposed intervention of great powers in the affairs of the weak states.
  • Adopted Interventionist Approach – 1971 Intervention in the East Pakistan
• Indira Gandhi favoured bilateralism over internationalisation in problem solving diplomacy. The Shimla Agreement, 1972, is a testimony to the fact.
• She asserted that international institutions need to exercise restraint in matters that affect India’s Sovereignty.
• An important feature was use of military as a tool if territorial integrity was challenged. However, the neighbours perceived use of military as interventionist in nature.

Neighbourhood Policy of India under Rajiv Gandhi

• He had three problems to address US + Pak + China
• When Rajiv Gandhi assumed control, the Indian intervention in Maldives and Sri Lanka transformed India into a ‘Perceptual Regional Hegemon’.
• Intervened militarily to assert Hegemony.
• Neighbours began to tilt towards China.
• Neighbours began to invite external power in the region.
• Rise of Civil militarism in Foreign Policy.

Neighbourhood Policy of India under P V Narasimha Rao

• He inherited the Anti-India sentiment of IG+RG
• End of Cold War and rising Anti-India sentiment.
• Neighbours began to take bilateral disputes at the International Level (HR issues in Kashmir) false narration building.
• India started countering Pakistan diplomatically at international level.
• India not to interfere in the domestic and political affairs of the neighbours.
• He gave importance to Economic growth in bringing stability with the neighbour.
• Hands off Approach
• The seeds of Gujral Doctrine were actually conceptualized by P V

Neighbourhood Policy of India under I K Gujral

I K Gujral

• Introduced a proper doctrine for the neighbourhood for the first time.
• Advocated Gujral Doctrine – Logic of Non-Reciprocity and Generosity. FP based on no transactionalism.
• India re-evaluated its self-interests and decided to be more generous.
• He tried to separate intelligence from the FP. Role of Intelligence restricted to creating Psychological Profiles and National Interests of the neighbouring countries. He restricted the use of Covert operations by these agencies. Even the creation of the covert assets was stopped. Aim was to build good will amongst neighbours instead of leaving space for the development of anti-India sentiment.
• Gujral Doctrine enunciated:-
  • That no South Asian country will allow its territory to be used against the interests of another country of the Region.
  • Respect each others territorial integrity and sovereignty
  • Settle disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations.

Neighbourhood Policy of India under A B V

BJP

• Three Core Problems which the BJP government inherited
• Rise of Pakistan sponsored terrorism in India
• Bangladesh began to support Pakistan
• Bhutan soil was being used by the insurgents in the north east for Anti-India activities.
• Busy in managing the fall out of the Pokhran – II at the global level.
• India’s global power aspirations are linked with our neighbourhood.
• He emphasized on the use of Regional Institutions to promote trade.
• BJP decided to use the platform of SAARC as a platform for regional co-operation or Economic Integration. Dream of South Asian Union (Free Trade amongst states – With few negative list). BJP saw SAARC not only for economic co-operation but also as a Political Union on the lines of European Union.
• He said Anti-India sentiments from the foreign soil will not be accepted. Challenge to India’s Sovereignty will not be accepted

Neighbourhood Policy of India under MM Singh

Manmohan Singh (UPA Government)

• The UPA government favoured political dialogue with the neighbour.
• It almost followed all the dimensions of the Gujaral Doctrine/Rao and Vajpayee without publicly accepting the same.
• The UPA also tried to use SAARC as a platform to further integration amongst the neighbouring states.
• Afghanistan became country of high priority for India. Economic Reconstruction of Afghanistan was the key. He wanted this to become as a template for Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and B’desh as well).
• India also tried a social messaging that India will engage with everyone in Afghanistan (Search for Friends).
• If the National Interest of my country is challenged, India will retaliate covertly. No marketing of Covert Operations.
• Political Dialogue in front and military covert architecture behind.

Neighbourhood Policy of India under Namo

Narendra Modi – Neighbourhood First Policy (Vistaarvaad Nahin, Vikasvaad) (Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas)

• He emphasized that Neighbourhood should be given First Priority.
• As part of the ‘Neighbourhood First’ Policy India is now trying to provide to its neighbours from Resources to Technology.
• The Search for friends continued. Open Dialogue with all the stakeholders. Overt engagement with Taliban.
• India doesn’t shy away to engage with stakeholders that affect India’s sovereignty.
• Public Diplomacy: Platforms like Shangrila Dialogue (India will be open to share ideas of FP and debate them) and Raisina Dialogue (Debate on FP ideas of our country; other countries are called especially the neighbours are given priority; they are allowed to put forth their views). In an informal atmosphere they get to speak. We in turn get to know what they feel.
• It is trying to position itself as a ‘Net Security Provider’ (Building up of Defence relationships). This is largely in sync with India’s SAGAR or Security and Growth for All, and a ‘Net Development Provider’ by giving grants, line of credits, skill development and technology transfer (Mutual Benefit).
• NFP = NSP+NDP
• Focus would be on developing connectivity with neighbourhood, both Road and Rail connectivity. This was a new element in neighbourhood.
• New dimension in connectivity – Space Connectivity (SAARC Satellite) – Display of Space Power and also reflecting rising capabilities of India.
• Focus should also be on Cultural Engagement to leverage Religion (Religious Diplomacy).
• India is moving towards search of common values thereby creating foundations for future Alliances.

Core Elements of Neighbourhood First Policy

• Thrust upon trade and investment
• Construct highways and rail infrastructure
• Establishment of power grids
• Foster Connectivity
• Neighbours to get resource for commercial diplomacy
• Focus on shared prosperity
• Mutual Trust
• Development Politics
• India lead regional integration

Narendra Modi – Neighbourhood First Policy (Cons)

• No Road map for Economic Integration (Absence of Path & Deliverables)
• Serious Challenge – Delivery Deficit (Tendency to over commit)
• No Road map even for Cultural Engagement

Neighbourhood Policy of India under Modi

The neighbourhood has been prioritised where India intends to position itself as a NSP and NDP.

The idea is to share economic and political benefits for all based upon mutual cooperation. Connectivity at land, air, rail, road and space is given priority. India is also exploring cooperation based on commonality of religious values.

However, the absence of a clear roadmap and delivery deficits may be a constraint in engaging with the neighbourhood optimally. 

India and its Neighbourhood Relations

• Salient features of India’s Neighbourhood First’ policy
• Immediate Priority to neighbours:The neighbourhood first policy of actively focuses on improving ties with India’s immediate neighbours.
• Dialogue:It focuses on vigorous regional diplomacy by engaging with neighbouring nations and building political connectivity through dialogue.
• Resolving bilateral issues:Focus is on resolving bilateral issues through mutual agreement. For instance, India and Bangladesh have signed a pact to operationalise the historic Land Boundary Agreement (LBA).
• Connectivity: India has entered into MoU with members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). These agreements ensures a free flow of resources, energy, goods, labour, and information across borders.
• Economic Cooperation: It focuses on enhancing trade ties with neighbours. India has participated and invested in SAARC as a vehicle for development in the region. One such example is the Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN)
• Technical Cooperation:The policy put emphasis on technical cooperation. Recently a dedicated SAARC satellite was developed to share the fruits of the technology like tele-medicine, e-learning etc. with the people across South Asia.
• Disaster Management: India’s offer cooperation on disaster response, resource management, weather forecasting and communication and also capabilities and expertise in disaster management for all South Asian citizens.
• Military and defence cooperation:India is also focusing on deepening security in the region through military cooperation. Various exercises like Surya Kiran with Nepal, Sampriti with Bangladesh aim to strengthen defence relations.

Various challenges

• Relation with Pakistan
• Unstable Afghanistan
• China
• Anti-Indian sentiments:Anti-Indian sentiments are getting rooted in the minds of people of region due to perceived notion of India’s big brother attitude and its economic dependence to India.
• For instance, the recent step of Demonetization impacted many countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar which use the Indian currency as a parallel currency within their borders.
• Divided Subcontinent on the Religious Lines
• Emergence of China
• Closed Economic Model
• Influence of Domestic Politics

Agartala Doctrine

• States should have a greater say in foreign policy matters involving neighbours so that their core interests are protected.
• States should act as responsible stake holders and not as spoilers seeking narrow domestic electoral gains.
• States should take the initiative to improve relations with neighbouring countries while keeping in mind the broader national interests.

India’s National Security Doctrine

Defensive – Defensive Offensive Strategies

• India will go to the site of the origin of the offence and try to retaliate
• India will however, will not shift to outright offensive mode
• Globally isolate Pakistan for its adventurism
• Branding Pakistan as a terrorist sponsor nation
• Try to economically cripple Pakistan

Conclusion

• There is no doubt that the challenges which India must deal with in its neighbourhood will become more complex and even threatening compared to two decades ago.
• But neighbourhood first policy must be anchored in the sustained engagement at all levels of the political and people to people levels, building upon the deep cultural affinities which are unique to India’s relations with its neighbours.
• India’s immediate neighbourhood directly impacts it geopolitically, geo-strategically and geo-economically because of its vicinity.
• Closer to home, India’s neighbours are beset by political and economic instability and the ripple effects are threatening to reverberate across the region.
• Pakistan and Sri Lanka, for example, face a grim economic future and the public are growing increasingly dissatisfied with their governments.
• In Afghanistan it is a different challenge that awaits India: Almost a year after the US withdrawal and the collapse of the government, New Delhi and the Taliban have cautiously re-established contact in an effort to establish stability, security, and normalcy in the region.
• The question for India is what role it will play as the world struggles to find its feet.
• And how will its ambitions for leadership evolve in a new order? New Delhi has the opportunity to answer these questions when it takes over the presidency of the G20 before the close of 2022.
• From that pulpit, India will work to set the agenda as the world navigates its realities of recessions and rogue states.

INDIA AND CHINA RELATIONS

The Case of Assam

• In 1212 AD Ahom Kingdom started in Assam. By 1820s, the Ahom Kingdom started weakening.
• Britishers were ruling India in that period. Britishers were happy with this development. However, to the south of Ahom Kingdom, Burma was present.
• While British were interested in Ahom Region due to the resource availability, the Burmese were looking for territorial expansion.
• Burma wanted to make the Naga Tribes and the Assam Tribes as a unified block with territorial expansion of Burma.
• This desire of Burma forced the Britishers to check mate the Burmese in Assam. The Britishers were also looking at Burma as a point of access to the sea and also in close proximity to the French Colonies in the east.
• Before this, the Britishers were regularly conducting surveys in the then Ahom Kingdom. In these surveys, the Britishers learnt that, there is scope for tea plantation, wood and fuel resources in some areas like Digboi, Dibrugarh in Assam.
• In this time period, Britain was witnessing the Industrial Revolution, and was hungry for resources to support the IR back home.
• Britishers were foresighted to see Burma from a Strategic perspective. So the dream of Britain and Burma were different. Britain was dreaming big, Burma was dreaming small.
• But both the contenders were wanting weakening of the Ahom Kingdom which they can utilise for their own advantage.
• This finally culminated in the Anglo-Burmese War. In 1824, Britishers defeated Burma. This resulted in the control of Burma by the British. After Burma, British also annexed the weakened Ahom Kingdom.
• When Britishers entered Ahom they not only got access to the resources of Ahom Kingdom, control & access to Burma and further sea and land route to the French Colonies, Britishers also learnt that, through the Ahom Kingdom they can also get access to Tibet.
• British gained access to Tibet from Lohit Valley (Ahom Kingdom) and also from Tawang.
• Britishers tried to establish their presence in Tawang. The Monpas in Tawang resisted the British presence in Tawang.
• One thing we need to understand here is that, the Britishers entered Assam with a different motive. It was only after going their motive changed.
• On entering Assam, they found the trade route with Tibet.

THE CASE OF PUNJAB

Modern Punjab was under the control of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh. This control was not only restricted to Punjab but extended to the present-day Jammu and Kashmir.

• This control was unified. Before him, Punjab was divided into small territories called Misls. Ranjeet Singh unified these misls and created a unified Punjab that extended to Jammu and Kashmir.
• While the control over Punjab was direct, the control over the territories of the J&K was indirect. As a strategy of indirect rule, he appointed a ruler to control the affairs of J&K. This ruler was Gulab Singh Jamwal.
• Gulab singh was under Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh only objective was to control the J&K territory on behalf of Ranjit Singh.
• So, Gulab Singh under the Ranjit Singh started Dogra Dynasty in J&K.
• There was a difference between Rajit Singh and Gulab Singh. While Ranjit Singh was a Status Quoist ruler, Gulab Singh was Expansionist.
• Gulab Singh Jamwal wanted to bring Ladakh under the control of J&K. Ladakh those days was a buffer between J&K and Tibet. The Ladakh people showed their allegiance with Tibet.
• In 1830s, Gulab Singh sent his Army to Ladakh and occupied it and integrated it with J&K.
• When his Army marched ahead of Ladakh and entered Tibet, Ambans resisted the Gulab Singh Army. (One needs to understand here that, the Gulab Singh Army had at one point even occupied Tibet till Kailash Mansarovar (1839-40).
• At this stage the Tibetans and the Ambans in the Tibet strongly resisted this expansionism of Gulab Singh Army and requested him to go back and restore the boundary with Old Himalayan Frontiers.
• Gulab Singh also realized this fact and retrieved till the point of Old Himalayan Frontiers. Had this retrieval not taken place, probably, Kailash Mansarovar would have been part of India.
• In 1839, Ranjit Singh died. Gulab Singh supported elder son of Ranjit Singh named Sher Singh to be the next ruler.
• The local people of Punjab called Sindhawalias were not happy with this development. The Sindhawalas said, Gulab singh that he was under Ranjit Singh and has no authority to decide who will be the ruler of Punjab.
• He said that he is just giving an opinion. The Sindhawalias said that there is no rule that the next ruler of Punjab should be from the family of Ranjit Singh only. Anyone from Punjab can be the next ruler.
• With these developments, Sher Singh became insecure. This eventually resulted in Sher Singh deepening his engagements with Gulab Singh.
• In this backdrop, the Sindhawalias grew suspicious about this growing alliance of Sher Singh and Gulab Singh.
• In 1839, Ranjit Singh died. Gulab Singh supported elder son of Ranjit Singh named Sher Singh to be the next ruler.
• The local people of Punjab called Sindhawalias were not happy with this development. The Sindhawalas said, Gulab singh that he was under Ranjit Singh and has no authority to decide who will be the ruler of Punjab.
• He said that he is just giving an opinion. The Sindhawalias said that there is no rule that the next ruler of Punjab should be from the family of Ranjit Singh only. Anyone from Punjab can be the next ruler.
• With these developments, Sher Singh became insecure. This eventually resulted in Sher Singh deepening his engagements with Gulab Singh.
• In this backdrop, the Sindhawalias grew suspicious about this growing alliance of Sher Singh and Gulab Singh.
• Sindhawalias said Punjab doesn’t have that much money and cannot give. To this, the Britishers asked Sindhawalias to cede the territories of J&K and Ladakh to the British.
• Sindhawalias accepted this. To effect this transfer of territory to British, the Sindhawalias signed a treaty with the British called the Treaty of Amritsar (1846). With this the British got the control of J&K and Ladakh.
• Gulab Singh approached the Britishers and gave an offer of purchasing this territory from the British. British readily agreed and sold this territory to Gulab Singh for 75 Lakhs. The Britishers amended the Treaty of Amritsar and mentioned that the Britishers further are selling this territory to Gulab Singh.
• Gulab Singh therefore got the authority to administer J&K and Ladakh, however the sovereignty remained with the British. Also, the Britishers said that Gulab Singh also doesn’t have the authority to define the frontiers of this territory.
• The Britishers said that after some time, when things settle, the Britishers said they will carryout surveys and define the territories of J&K and Ladakh. Gulab singh started administering the gained back territories.
• To the immediate north of Tibet was Kahsgar Region (present day Xingjian Province). Yakuk Beg was the ruler of this area. Over a period of time friendship developed between Yakub Beg and Gulab Singh.
• Unlike Tibet, Kashger was under the direct Control of China and part of its territory.
• Yakub Beg wanted Kahsger to be out of the control of Qing Dynasty and an independent territory like Tibet.
• Yakub Beg requested support of Gulab Singh and his troops to fight rebellion with the Chinese Qing Dynasty in 1864.
• Gulab Singh readily agreed and sent his troops for the support of Yakub Beg. With the help of Gulab Singh, Yakub Beg was successful in the rebellion and established an independent territory in Kahsger.
• Yakub Beg was very happy. Yakub Beg wanted to repay Gulab Singh for his support. Yakub Beg offered Gulab Singh to identify any territory in Kashger and construct a fort for himself.
• Gulab Singh went on tour to Kashger and identified Aksai Chin area and constructed a fort there. Gulab Singh left some troops for the upkeep, maintenance and safety of the fort. (Later China got back the Kashger Region in 1877 from Yakub Baig and renamed that area as Xinjiang. Ever since then, China is insecure with Xinjiang)
• In this background, the British started their Survey of the frontiers. This Survey work was headed by a Surveyor General called Sir William Johnson. After completing the survey of Kashmir and Ladakh, British went up till the Aksai Chin.
• On seeing Gulab Singh troops guarding the fort in Aksai Chin, the surveyors on ground incorporated the fort and the adjoining areas within the British boundaries. The boundary so drawn came to be known as the Johnson Line. This resulted in Aksai Chin being depicted within India and a map to this effect was issued in 1865.
• General Walker, the Surveyor General of the British India saw this error three years later and said this is wrong. Aksai Chin was part of Kashger Region, which was in turn part of China.
• Though Walker rejected this line, he made a big mistake of not rectifying this mistake by issuing a fresh map. Walker didn’t want to further antagonize China by issuing another map. So, he decided to keep silent about it. (The Britishers never published Johnson Line).
• After Independence when the forward area maps were digged out, India claimed entire Aksai Chin as part of India and issued the political maps of Independent India depicting Aksai Chin as part of India.
• In a way, India unnecessarily claimed an area as its own which was in reality never ours.

The Russian Angle

• 1853 Crimean Wars, Russia defeated. Russia started expansionism and reached Central Asia and created entire Central Asia as buffer. Alternatively, Britishers made Afghanistan as Buffer.
• The Britishers wanted to safeguard the entire norther axis from Afghanistan, Kashmir till the China border to check the southward expansion of Russia.
• Towards this aim, Britishers created two military posts in Hunza and Naggar in Gilgit Baltistan. The Qing Dynasty objected to this. The Britishers responded by saying that the rulers of Hunza and Naggar were aware of these posts and they have not objected to this. The Chinese asked the Britishers to ask the rulers of Hunza and Naggar as to whom they show their allegiance, both the rulers said we show our allegiance to the Chinese.
• To resolve this deadlock, in 1896, the Britishers appointed John Ardargh to carryout fresh survey and define the boundary.
• John Ardagh was from the military intelligence and was aware of the impending Russian invasion from the north. He adopted a policy of Forward School of Thought.
• He wanted to define the boundary as far and deep as possible. In this Ardagh Line (1896) he depicted Hunza, Naggar, Karkash/Yarkand (Ladakh), Aksai Chin everything as part of British India. Ardagh Line was published.
• A map to this effect was issued. This was seriously objected by China. To pacify the antagonism of China (Britishers feared that China may join hands with Russia and invade India from North), Britishers themselves nullified the Ardagh Line.
• In 1899, Britishers proposed Mc Cartney Mc Donald Line. As per this, the Britishers said, we will give our Aksai Chin to China, please don’t stake claims on Hunza and Naggar. Chinese were clever and never responded to this.
• British withdrew this proposal later and adopted a policy of wait and watch (Britishers were actually waiting for the Qing Dynasty to collapse) and continued its military presence in Hunza and Naggar.

Political System in China

• The People’s Republic of China is run by a single party, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), headed by the CCP General Secretary who tends to be the paramount leader of China.
• China is among few contemporary party-led dictatorships to not hold any direct elections at the national level. State power within the People’s Republic of China (PRC) is exercised through the CCP, the State Council, and its provincial and local representation.
• The state uses Internal Reference, secret documents produced by Xinhua News Agency as a form of internal intelligence sharing to keep high-level CCP cadres informed of developments within the country.

• China’s two special administrative regions (SARs), Hong Kong and Macau, have multi-party systems separate from the mainland’s one-party system.
• Aside from the SARs, the PRC consists of 22 provinces (excluding Taiwan Province and ROC-controlled Fujian), four directly administered municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Chongqing), and five autonomous regions (Guangxi, Tibet, Xinjiang, Ningxia, and Inner Mongolia).
• The Chinese political system is authoritarian. There are no freely elected national leaders, political opposition is suppressed, all religious activity is controlled by the CCP, dissent is not permitted, and civil rights are curtailed.
• Elections in China occur under a single-party authoritarian political system.
• Elections occur only at the local level, not the national level

TAWANG CLASHES

India –China Trade Relations

Tawang Clash

• Location of Clash:
  • Soldiers of the two sides clashed in an area called Yangtse, in the upper reaches of Tawang sector in Arunachal Pradesh. 
  • The entire state itself, and within it, Tawang, are areas of serious contestation between India and China.

Significance

• India-USA Military exercise:
  • The Yangtse incident came days after China said that the joint India-US military exercise Operation Yudhabhyas had violated the terms of the 1993 and 1996 border agreements.

Tawang Clash

• Tawang is the birthplace of the sixth Dalai Lama and an important pilgrimage centre for Tibetan Buddhists. 
• The 14th Dalai Lama took refuge in Tawang after he crossed over from Tibet to India in 1959, spending some days in the monastery there before proceeding further.
• Agreed area:
• Within Tawang, there are three “agreed areas” of differing Indian and Chinese perceptions of the LAC. 
• Yangtse, which is about 25 km from Tawang town, north of the Lungroo grazing ground, is one of these areas. 
• As a result, it has been the site of regular “physical contact” between the Indian Army and the PLA, especially as the high ground is on the Indian side, giving it a commanding view of the Chinese side.
• Diversion from other issues:
  • It is also being claimed that the PLA’s motivation for creating a new crisis along the disputed border, this time in the east appears to be to extend the points of confrontation and keep the issue of India-China border alive at a time when the world is engaged in overcoming multiple crisis emanating from the War in Ukraine.

About Trade Ties 

• Overview: China is India’s second biggest trading partner after the United States.
•  In 2021-22, India-China bilateral trade stood at $115.83 billion, which was 11.19 percent of India’s total merchandise trade of $1,035 billion.
  •  The US was just a notch above, with 11.54 percent ($119.48 billion) share.
  • Other countries: Apart from the US and China, the other eight countries and regions among India’s top-10 trading partners during 2021-22 were UAE, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, and Australia.
• Imports Items: During 2021-22, 15.42 percent ($94.57 billion) of India’s total imports ($613.05 billion) came from China.
• The top commodities that India bought included: electrical machinery and equipment and parts thereof; sound recorders and reproducers, television image and sound recorders and reproducers and parts; nuclear reactors, boilers, machinery, and mechanical appliances and parts of thereof; organic chemicals; plastic and plastic articles; and fertilisers.

About Trade Ties 

• Imports have been up significantly since Galwan clash:
• The monthly figure of imports from China, which hit a low of $3.32 billion in June 2020 during the Covid lockdown, started rising soon after the easing of restrictions and rose to $5.58 billion in the following month (July 2020). Since then, it continued rising and scaled a new peak of $10.24 billion in July 2021.
• Exports: In 2021-22, India’s exports to China stood at $21.25 billion, which was 5 percent of India’s total shipments ($422 billion).
• Among the top commodities China bought from India included: Ores, slag, and ash; organic chemicals, mineral fuels, mineral oils, and products of their distillation, bituminous substances, mineral waxes; iron and steel; aluminum and articles of thereof; and cotton.
• Among single items, light Naphtha ($1.37 billion) was India’s most valued export item to China during 2021-22.

Spike in Trade Deficit

• Spike in trade deficit: India’s trade deficit with China has increased from $1 billion to $73 billion in the past 21 years.
• During the first seven months (April-October) of the current financial year (2022-23), India’s trade deficit with China stood at $51 billion, which was 39 percent higher than the figure ($37 billion) recorded in the corresponding period of the last fiscal.
• In fact, China alone accounted for over one-third of India’s total trade deficit ($191 billion) during 2021-22.
• The rising gap between imports and exports from China is evident from the fact that two decades ago, India’s imports accounted for about 60 percent of the total bilateral trade between the two countries, but now it is over 80 percent.

Memorabilia of Diplomatic Relations between China and India:

• On April 1, 1950, China and India established diplomatic relations.
• India was the first non-socialist country to establish relations with the People’s Republic of China..
• In 1954, China and India signed the Joint Statement and jointly advocated the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.
• In 1962, the border conflict led to a serious setback in bilateral relations.
• In 1976, China and India restored ambassadorial relations and bilateral ties improved gradually.
• In 2003, the two sides agreed to establish the special representatives meeting mechanism on the India-China boundary question.
• 2011 was the “China-India Exchange Year” both sides held a series of people-to-people and cultural exchange activities.
• In 2015, China decided to open the Nathu La Pass to Indian official pilgrims to Xizang.
• In 2018 and 2019 informal meetings were held between India and China.

Facts and Figures on China-India Cooperation

Political and Diplomatic Relations:

• China and India have held 2 informal summits and exchanged views on long-term and strategic issues of global and regional importance.
•  Exchanges and cooperation have been carried out through high-level visits, study tours, training courses and seminars.
• Inter-parliamentary friendship groups have been set up by China and India. 
•  Special Representatives’ meetings on the boundary question in 2003 have played an important role in maintaining peace and tranquillity in the border areas.
• There are around 50 dialogue mechanisms between China and India for exchanging views on various topics of bilateral, regional and global concern.

Economy and Trade:

• China and India have held several rounds of financial dialogues on macroeconomic policies, cooperation under multilateral frameworks as well as bilateral investment.
• Both countries have held several sessions of China-India Joint Group of Economy and Trade to engage in bilateral trade in goods and services.
• More than 1,000 Chinese companies have increased their investment in industrial parks, e-commerce and other areas in India, with 200,000 local jobs created
• Indian companies are also investing in the Chinese market.
• In 2019, the trade volume between China and India was $92.68 billion.
• With a combined market of over 2.7 billion people and a GDP of 20% of the world’s total, China and India enjoy huge potential for economic and trade cooperation.

Science and Technology:

• China and India have held 2 rounds of China-India Joint Research workshops on Science and Technology Innovation.
• China and India have hosted conferences of China-India Technology Transfer, Collaborative Innovation & Investment.
• Indian companies have set up IT corridors in China which helps in promoting China-India cooperation in information technology and high technology.
• China and India have held meetings of the China-India Joint Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation.

Defence:

• China and India have held 8 rounds of “Hand-in-Hand” joint anti-terrorist exercises to enhance mutual understanding and trust.
• China and India have held 9 rounds of China-India defence and security consultation to strengthen exchanges and cooperation in the defence field.

People-to-People Exchanges:

• China and India have held 2 rounds of meetings of China-India High-Level People-to-People and Cultural Exchanges Mechanism.
• There is a China-India Think Tank Forum to strengthen exchanges and cooperation in the field of media and think tanks.
• Over 2,000 young Chinese are studying in India, and more than 20,000 Indian youth are studying in China.
• The number of Indian pilgrims to Xizang Autonomous Region of China has increased from several hundred in the 1980s to more than 20,000 in 2019.
• Two-way personnel exchanges between China and India have exceeded 1 million.
• There are 134 flights linking major cities of the two countries every week.

Analysis:

• The two sides have made great progress on exchanges and cooperation in the fields of art, publishing, media, film and television, museum, sports, youth, tourism, locality, traditional medicine, yoga, education and think tanks.

What are the Implications of China-Pakistan Closeness For India?

• Two Front War: Convergence between the two countries raises the real specter of a ‘two-front’ war.
• Negotiation of Lost Territory: China now looks to negotiate to ‘recover’ Indian territories that it claims namely, Aksai Chin, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
• It also positions China to play a role in Kashmir and the region.
• China’s Rise to Global Power Status: China and Pakistan both share a common objective to prevent India’s rise.
• With China’s rise as a global power, India views its partnership with Pakistan as a greater concern than before.

What are the Implications of China-Pakistan Closeness For India?

• What is the Present Status of the India-China-Pakistan Triangle?
• The US-India closeness started by the nuclear deal in 2005-06 left both China and Pakistan worried.
• China’s Belt and Road Initiative has manifested in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) which passes through the disputed territory claimed by India.
• From China’s perspective, it offers access to the western Indian Ocean through the Gwadar port in Balochistan.
• However, from India’s perspective, the Gwadar port is a part of the String of Pearls Strategy, for the encirclement of India.

What are the Implications of China-Pakistan Closeness For India?

• India’s August 2019 move to abrogate Article 370 and revoke the special status of Jammu and Kashmir has brought China and Pakistan even closer.
• In 2020, China signed a defence pact with Pakistan to enhance defence cooperation between the Pakistan Army and the People’s Liberation Army.
  • Pakistan has procured Chinese-made combat drones or unmanned combat aerial vehicles.
• Pakistan endorses China’s position on its core issues including the South China Sea, Taiwan, Xinjiang, and Tibet.
• After the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan, China has now sensed an opportunity to get into Afghanistan for influence and resources with help from Pakistan.

Mains Question

1. Discuss how India need to move cautiously in finding a diplomatic solution to the pending boundary disputes with China? (150 words) 10 Marks
2. Discuss how India-China relations convergence is imperative for realising the dream of Asian Century? (150 Words) 10 Marks
3. Enumerate the contentious issues between India and China? Also, suggest way forward to forge ahead despite divergences? (250 Words) 15 Marks
4. The growing aggressive stand of China is disturbing the delicate thread of relationship of two Asian major economies? Comment (150 Words) 10 Marks
5. Discuss the implications of China-Pakistan closeness for India? (150 Words) 10 Marks

HISTORY OF TIBET

China-Tibet Conflict

• Tibet has been occupied and ruled over by China and the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) since 1951 in “a calculated and systematic strategy aimed at the destruction of their national and cultural identities” (14th Dalai Lama, 1997).
• This has often been described by the Tibetan people as a Cultural Genocide (Goldstein, 1998).
• Eight years of occupation and repression led to the Tibetan Uprising of 1959, in which Tibetans rebelled in an attempt to overthrow the Chinese government; instead, the uprising led to the fleeing of HH the Fourteenth Dalai Lama into India, where he has lived in exile ever since.
• A few hundred Tibetans initially followed the 14th Dalai Lama into exile, and since then hundreds of thousands have followed.
• After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1933, political upheaval characterized much of Tibet until a new religious candidate could be found.
• Deciding that power should be temporarily shared by a lama acting as regent, Reting, and a lay chief minister, the Tibetan government was sieged both by internal and external quests for control over the region.
• The latter in the form of China sought to “liberate” Tibetans from their “serf-like” existence and to ultimately “return” Tibet to the motherland.
• Aware that they would eventually be forced to deal with China, Tibetan officials attempted to maintain negotiations while denying requests.
• Finally in 1937, a potential candidate for Dalai Lama was discovered in the Chinese-controlled province of
• Forced to rely on Chinese aid for the removal of the boy to political Tibet, the entourage returned to Lhasa in 1939. By the time the Dalai Lama was to receive his vows in 1941, Tibet had long been under the corrupt rule of Reting’s regime.
• Vindictive, greedy, and non-celebate, Reting was unwilling to allow a more senior monk, Takdra, to take his place as regent to give the Dalai Lama his vows. Resigning with the belief that Takdra would eventually reinstate him, Reting spent the next six years until his death in constant contention with the Tibetan government.
• After dealing with the corruption left over from Reting’s reign and Reting’s many attempts at overthrow, Takdra finally approved Reting’s arrest by the Chinese in 1947. With the nation divided by these political allegiances and the country in need of revision and modernization, Tibet was unprepared for the increase in Chinese pressure for control and integration.
• As the Chinese army advanced towards political Tibet, Tibetan religious leaders urged that state power be transferred to the young Dalai Lama and that government officials relocate to the Indian border.
• In 1951, the Dalai Lama was forced to accept the terms of the Seventeen Point Agreement, forcing Tibet to return to Chinese jurisdiction while maintaining some level of autonomy including religious freedom.
• However, throughout the 1950s, relations between Tibetan Buddhism and Communist China worsened as monasteries continued to be places of resistance and potential shelter for rebels.
• With increased Chinese negativity towards religion and allegations of disappearing lamas, the Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959.
• After the imprisonment of the Panchen Lama for a dissenting report about the state of Tibetan affairs, China no longer felt restrained by its earlier promises and was free to enforce its policies.
• The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) demonstrated this through the destruction of many symbols of Tibetan religious life, including temples and monasteries.
• Furthermore, religious figures and other educated individuals were forced into reeducation and severely maltreated. Although Chinese policies in the 1980s tried to revert some of the destruction, the damage to Tibetan culture was already done.
• In the late 1980s, tensions between Tibet and China increased until violence climaxed in early 1989 with the deaths of many protesting Tibetans by police fire.
• Other demonstrations for the exiled Dalai Lama and pro-democracy (like the demonstration in Tiananmen Square in Beijing) received international attention and made Tibetan religious devotion tantamount to political views in the eyes of the Chinese government.
• In an attempt to curb instability in Tibet during the 1990s and 2000s, the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) pushed for the economic development of the region and campaigned for the removal of images of the Dalai Lama from public areas and many private residences.
• Furthermore, the Chinese government re-hauled educational texts for Tibetan students, ultimately promoting Chinese ideologies in the Tibetan language

4.2 THE RISE OF MODERN CHINA

Who were the Han Chinese

The Han Chinese are an East Asian Ethnic Group native to China. They consist of various subgroups speaking distinctive varieties of the Chinese Language.

Originating from Northern China, the Han Chinese trace their cultural ancestry to the Huaxia, the confederation of agricultural tribes living along the Yellow River. This collective Neolithic confederation included agricultural tribes Hua and Xia, hence the name.

The estimated 1.4 billion Han Chinese people worldwide are primarily concentrated in the People’s Republic of China (including Hong Kong and Macau), where they make up about 92% of the total population. 

In Taiwan, they make up about 97% of the population. People of Han Chinese descent also make up around 75% of the total population of Singapore.

Han Chinese Religion

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are considered the “three pillars” of ancient Chinese society.

Taoism teaches about the various disciplines for achieving perfection through self-cultivation.

As philosophies and religions, they not only influenced spirituality, but also government, science, the arts, and social structure.

Confucianism

Though closer to a philosophy than a true religion, Confucianism was a way of life for ancient Chinese people, and it continues to influence Chinese culture today.

Dynasties Ruling China

Ming Dynasty: Before 1644 China was ruled by Ming Dynasty. In 1644 certain tribals (Manchus) came from Mongolia and fought fiercely with the people of Ming Dynasty and defeated them (Manchu Rebellion). With the defeat of the Ming Dynasty the rule of Qing Dynasty started in China.

Qing Dynasty (1644): The people of Qing Dynasty were Buddhists. China came under the influence of Buddhism. Buddhism began to become a dominant religion. Rule of Buddhists started.

Qing Dynasty and the British India History

In the meanwhile, India came under the British Rule. And these Britishers started trading with the rest of the world. China was India’s neighbour and the Britishers wanted to trade with them.

People of Qing Dynasty however adopted a Closed Foreign Policy thereby drastically reducing international engagements. They wanted to establish trade relations by hook or by crook.

Britishers realised between China and India, Tibet was present as a buffer state. It was not part of China. It was an independent state. The Britishers started corrupting the Tibetan Youth by giving them drugs. With these drug addict youth they started doing illegal trade.

The Chinese emperors of the Qing Dynasty were upset with this development finally culminating in the form of OPIUM WARS.

Dynasties Ruling China

The First Opium War (1839–42) was fought between China and Britain, and the Second Opium War (1856–60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by Britain and France against China.

The Qing Dynasty of China was defeated in the Second Opium War. The Britishers did not control or acquire China, instead they took Trade Concessions from them.

After the Second Opium War, the Britishers took control of the Hong Kong, which was basically a Port city and the Britishers had Naval Superiority.

They got the complete control of Hong Kong. This Hong Kong was gradually transformed as a trade transit point. This was the port from where the global trade happened between the British and the rest of the world.

The Han Chinese and the Britishers Divide and Rule

• The mainland China was inhabited by the Han Chinese. The Han Chinese trace their origin to the Han Dynasty which was in China during the 2^nd They were the local inhabitants of China.
• However, with the advent of the Qing Dynasty, Buddhism took the central stage and the Han Chinese were getting supressed.
• Once Britishers acquired the control of Hong Kong, Britishers started supporting the Han Chinese in Hong Kong against the Buddhists rule. The famous Divide And Rule Policy of the British.
• Understand Buddhists were a minority in China, so it was technically a minority rule in China.
• The aim of the Britishers was to basically provide support to the Han Chinese, so that, in Hong Kong they can weaken the control of Buddhists (Qing Dynasty).
• Once successful in their misadventures in Hong Kong, the Britishers carried forward this policy in mainland China as well.

The Han Chinese and the Britishers Divide and Rule and the Fall of Qing Dynasty

• Gradually, the Han Chinese in the mainland China also started getting support tacitly. They, with this tacit support, started weakening the people of Qing Dynasty.
• By the advent of 20^th Century the Qing Dynasty became very weak and finally led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. The Qing dynasty was the last dynastic power to rule China. It governed the country from the middle of the 1600s until 1912.
• The Xinhai Revolution of 1911-1912 resulted in the overthrow of the Qings and led to the establishment of the Republic of China.
• After the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, the Han Chinese became dominant. Han Chinese established a Nationalist Party (why Nationalist because they were the original inhabitants) called “Kuomintang Party”(KMT).

The Impact of Russian Revolution on China

• Russian Revolution happened in 1917, it inspired many dominant leaders and countries alike.
• One Dr Sun Yat Sen and Mao Zedong of China were deeply inspired by the Russian Revolution. After being inspired, they formed in 1920, “Communist Party of China” (CPC).
• Both KMT and CPC had different approaches to capture power in China. While the CPC concentrated to capture power in rural areas first and then spread the ideology to the urban centres (Rural to Urban).
• The KMT followed a completely opposite stance (Urban to Rural). Both the parties tried to mobilize people with an intention to capture the state power.
• Long March, (1934–35), the 6,000-mile (10,000-km) historic trek of the Chinese communists, which resulted in the relocation of the communist revolutionary base from south-eastern to north-western China and in the emergence of Mao Zedong as the undisputed party leader.

China under the grip of Civil Wars from 1920-1945

• The impact of these ideological differences between KMT and CPC on the Chinese Society and Polity was that, China witnessed “Civil Wars” from 1920 onwards. (Civil war is a war that happens within the geographical boundaries of a country amongst two or more political parties with an intention to capture state power).
• This capture of power need not be through Elections only, it can be through Brute Force as well.
• From 1920 till 1945 China witnessed Civil wars. So for 25 years China was a victim of Civil Wars.
• In 1945, at the end of the WWII, External State Actors also began to come into China.

Japanese Invasion of China – Manchuria

• Seeking raw materials to fuel its growing industries, Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931.
• By 1937 Japan controlled large sections of China, and accusations of war crimes against the Chinese became commonplace. It was estimated that 20 million people were killed in this massacre.
• In 1939, the armies of Japan and the Soviet Union clashed in the area of the Khalkin Gol river in Manchuria. This battle lasted four months and resulted in a significant defeat for the Japanese.
• The United States, along with other countries, criticized Japanese aggression but shied away from any economic or military punishments.
• Relations between the U.S. and Japan worsened further when Japanese forces took aim at Indochina with the goal of capturing oil-rich areas of the East Indies. 
• Responding to this threat, the United States placed an embargo on scrap metal, oil and aviation fuel heading to Japan and froze Japanese assets in the U.S.
• Furthermore, the S. demanded that the Japanese withdraw from conquered areas of China and Indochina. Japan, sensing conflict was inevitable, began planning for an attack on Pearl Harbour by April, 1941.
• The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 brought the United States officially into World War II.
• In the surprise attack, Japan sunk several ships, destroyed hundreds of planes and ended thousands of lives. The Japanese goal was to cripple the U.S. Pacific fleet, and they nearly succeeded. 

The External State Actors in growth of Communist China

• By the time WWII ended, CPC was supported by USSR and KMT was supported by UK &US.
• Gradually the public sympathy started tilting towards the CPC, because, ever since the end of the WWII, CPC started a campaign, saying that KMT is deriving support from UK & US who are basically capitalist countries, who will eventually sell the country to foreign players.
• As a result of this campaign, the people of China started sympathising with the CPC (Its all about campaigning – Remember Modi Campaigning).
• Finally, in 1949, CPC defeated KMT in the Civil War, and eventually the “People’s Republic of China” was born. The PRC is ruled by the CPC. Mao Zedong, one of the important persons associated with the CPC.
• KMT finally fled to present day Taiwan and formed “Republic of China”, who claim to be the original China.

The Communist & KMT Divide

• From 1840-1940s, China had faced escalating social, economic, and political problems as a result of Western imperialism and the decline of the Qing Dynasty.
• Cyclical famines and an oppressive landlord system kept the large mass of rural peasantry poor and politically disenfranchised.
• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was formed in 1921 by young urban intellectuals inspired by European socialist ideas and the success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
• The CCP originally allied itself with the nationalist Kuomintang party against the warlords and foreign imperialism, but the Shanghai Massacre of Communists ordered by KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek in 1927 forced them into the Chinese Civil War.

The Birth of Modern Day China

• China was born out of Violence unlike India, that was born as a result of peaceful struggle.
• The birth instincts (Violence) of China follow them even today, when China has territorial disputes with all its 18 neighbours. CPC started strengthening its periphery (China’s Periphery Diplomacy).
• This is how there is a stark difference between India and China. When we became Independent, we focussed on strengthening of our Core (Domestic Borders). While our focus was Internal, Chinese focus was External.
• Remember Mao Zedong’s “Palm and Five Fingers Policy”. Tibet to be China’s right hand palm, with five fingers on its periphery: Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh, and that it is China’s responsibility to “liberate” these regions.

China’s Periphery Diplomacy

• China’s strategic rationales for working more closely with its neighbours include upholding the security of its border, expanding trade and investment networks, and preventing a geopolitical balancing coalition.
• Beijing uses a range of tools for periphery diplomacy, including deepening economic integration, engaging neighbouring major powers, and at times using coercion to achieve its aims.
• Although states around China’s periphery welcome trade and investment ties with Beijing, China’s more assertive actions in recent years have engendered fear and wariness about Chinese intentions.
• Remember CPC followed a model of Rural to Urban. By the time of 1949, CPC developed strong holds in the Rural Hinterland and now it wanted to concentrate on the Urban clusters and the Peripheral areas.
• This Policy of China resulted in the Annexation of Tibet, Annexation of Aksai Chin after the Indo-China Conflict of 1962, building Strong holds in the Xingjian Province (the western most province of China), continued assertion along India-China border, along border with Nepal and Bhutan and Non-recognition of Sikkim as Indian territory till 2003.

India-China Border Diplomacy

• In 1947 India became Independent. In 1949, PRC was established. At that time both the countries had natural boundaries. A natural border had natural physical features like Mountains and Lakes.
• The British never tried to aggressively create a border between India and China as the Qing Dynasty that ruled China followed the policy of Closed Foreign Policy.
• As a result, British never found China to be a threat to their rule in India. Though they tried to solve border differences, but they were not interested deeply.
• With the departure of British and the formation of PRC, now both the countries decided should we continue to have natural borders or shall we draw a physical border.
• This discussion continued from 1949-1954. By 1954, it was decided that we will have a proper border. From 1954-1959, they started discussing the modalities of this proper border. Exchange of various maps happened, however, consensus never came on this matter.
• By 1960, both the parties began to become insecure. Finally, in 1962 it led to a conflict. India got defeated in this conflict. To further humiliate us, Pakistan started tilting towards China.
• In 1953, Pakistan and China signed a Boundary Agreement. In this Agreement, Pakistan gifted Shaksgam Valley (5180 Sq. Kms) to China.
• Shaksgam Valley had around 242 Glaciers, a very rich fresh water source, which China didn’t need then, but were aware that they would need in near future, and happily kept the Valley under their control.

The US-China Bonhomie

• In 1971, India-Pakistan engaged in a war, resulting in Vivisection of Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh an Independent Nation. This Military feat by Indian Army was disturbing to US and China both alike.
• After the end of War, Pakistan was successful in creating an impression to the International community (especially US & China) that it had existential threats from Indian Army.
• In this backdrop, US & China decided to keep the West Pakistan intact from Indian Army’s potential threat. To ensure survival of Pakistan, US and China became friends from 1972 onwards.
• Both of them decided to keep Indian Army busy with Internal disturbances in India and this gave birth to the Khalistan problem in Punjab (US + Pakistan) and the North East Insurgency (US + China) in the North East. Indian Army now had to fight two fronts, leading to division of the resources of Indian Army

Capitalist Growth of China from 1972 onwards

• China started focussing on Capitalist growth. Politically a Communist country started focussing on Capitalist Growth Model. In 1979, China started creating structures (governance structures like regulators etc) for a Capitalistic growth. The ruler was Den Xiaoping.
• From 1980 onwards, started Domestic growth with the US support. This domestic growth led to GDP growth negatively impacting the environment. Rivers got polluted, environment got degraded but the growth trajectory continued
• As a result, China became a resource hungry country. It was in 1990, China began to take Outward Impulse. For the first time China said I will go out to get the resource
• The First area where China went was the Central Asia, being a neighbouring area. China started getting resources from Central Asia. But, with Central Asia China had Border Disputes.
• To overcome this situation of resource crunch, in 1996, China created a group called Shanghai Five primarily to overcome the border problem displaying an open selfish stance in International Relations.
• In a span of 6 years, the border disputes with the Central Asian neighbours were solved. As a result, in 2001, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) came into being. China then became a net product provider. China started Dumping its production in the Central Asian Region.
• The Second Area China decided to go was Africa. Like Central Asia, Africa was also a resource rich area. However, Chinese model adopted in Africa was too selfish. They established factories, extracted the resources, employed their own country men and just shared a percentage of the profit with Africa.
• This policy of China completely devasted African Continent. Even the share of the so called profits was adjusted with the loan repayments and other obligations of the Africans to China.

TIANANMEN SQUARE INCIDENT 1989

Tiananmen Square Incident-1989

• The Tiananmen Square protests were student-led demonstrations calling for democracy, free speech and a free press in China. They were halted in a bloody crackdown, known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, by the Chinese government on June 4 and 5, 1989.
• This Pro-Democracy protests were brutally supressed by the Chinese government. Although thousands of protesters simply tried to escape, others fought back, stoning the attacking troops and setting fire to military vehicles.
• Reporters and Western diplomats there that day estimated that hundreds to thousands of protesters were killed in the Tiananmen Square Massacre, and as many as 10,000 were arrested.

How Xinjiang was integrated with China

• Xinjiang historically consisted of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names:
• Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains; and
• The Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, currently mainly inhabited by the Uyghurs.
• Uyghur Khaganate in the 8th-9th century.
• Uyghur power declined, and three main regional kingdoms vied for power around Xinjiang, namely the Buddhist Uyghur Kara-Khoja, the Turkic Muslim Kara-Khanid, and the Iranian Buddhist Khotan.
• Eventually, the Turkic Muslim Kara-Khanids prevailed and Islamized the region.
• In the 13th century it was part of the Mongol Empire. After that, the Turkic people prevailed again.
• They were renamed Xinjiang in 1884, meaning “new frontier,” when both regions were conquered by the Manchu Qing dynasty after the Dungan revolt (1862–1877).

The History of Macau China

• Macau is a former colony of the Portuguese Empire, after Ming China leased the territory as a trading post in 1557.
• Portugal paid an annual rent and administered the territory under Chinese sovereignty until 1887, when it gained perpetual colonial rights in the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking.
• The colony remained under Portuguese rule until 1999, when it was transferred to China.
• Macau is a special administrative region of China, which maintains separate governing and economic systems from those of mainland China under the principle of “one country, two systems”.

One Country – Two Systems

• “One country, Two systems” is a constitutional principle of the People’s Republic of China describing the governance of Hong Kong and Macausince they became Special Administrative Regions (SARs) of China in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
• It was formulated in the early 1980s by Chinese leader Deng Xiaopingduring negotiations with the United Kingdom over Hong Kong.
• He suggested that there would be only One China, but that these regions could retain their own economic and administrative systems, while the rest of Mainland China uses the socialism with Chinese characteristics system.
• Under the principle, each of the two regions could continue to have its own governmental system, legal, economic and financial affairs, including trade relations with foreign countries, all of which are independent from those of the Mainland.
• The PRC has also proposed to apply the principle in the unification it aims for withTaiwan.

The History of Hong Kong

• The First Opium War which ensued lasted from 1839 to 1842. Britain occupied the island of Hong Kong on 25 January 1841 and used it as a military staging point.
• China was defeated and was forced to cede Hong Kong in the Treaty of Nankingsigned on 29 August 1842.
• The island became a Crown Colony of the British Empire.
• At midnight on June 30, 1997, Britain handed over Hong Kong, its colony for 150 years, to China in return for a promise that the region would be given “a high degree of autonomy” and retain its lifestyle for the next 50 years under a “one country, two systems” formula. What lay beyond 2047 was not spelled out.

A Brief History

• Hong Kong was handed back to China from British control in 1997, but under a unique agreement which was based on a mini-constitution called the Basic Law and thus, a so-called “one country, two systems” principle came in the light.
• Under the same agreement, Hong Kong had to enact its own national security law – this was set out in Article 23 of the Basic Law. However, it could not be enacted due to the protests against the law in 2003.
• In the same year, Hong Kong tried to remove some of the provisions of article 23 in which nearly half a million people took part in the protest but was jettisoned.
• Since early 2019, there has been a move to introduce an extradition bill which also faced huge protests in which 3-4 million people (out of around 7 million population of Hong Kong) participated; the extradition bill was cancelled.

Extradition

• It is the formal process of one state surrendering an individual to another state for prosecution or punishment for crimes committed in the requesting country’s jurisdiction.
• This is generally enabled through a bilateral or multilateral treaty.
• The legal basis for extradition with countries with whom India does not have an Extradition treaty is provided by Section 3 (4) of the Indian Extradition Act, 1962.

Basic Law

• Basic Law allows Hong Kong to enjoy executive, legislative and independent judicial power, including that of final adjudication, barring matters of defence and foreign affairs.
• Under Article 23 of the Basic Law, Hong Kong has to enact a national security law “to prohibit any act of treason, secession, sedition, subversion against the Central People’s Government, or theft of state secrets, to prohibit foreign political organizations or bodies from conducting political activities in the Region, and to prohibit political organizations or bodies of the Region from establishing ties with foreign political organizations or bodies.”
• Article 23 aims at preserving national security but it will also allow China’s national security organs to formally operate and set up institutions in Hong Kong.

Issues With The Law

• The law is an attack on the human rights of the people of Hong Kong as it curtails their freedom of speech and freedom of assembly.
• The law could see people punished for criticising Beijing as well as the Chinese Communist Party – as it happens in mainland China.
• It violates the basic law of Hong Kongwhich proposes the one country, two systems
  • The article 22 of the basic law of Hong Kong is violated which suggests that no central government. agencies can interfere in the functioning of the Special Administrative Region (Hong Kong).
  • Article 12 which suggests that there will be a high degree of autonomy is also violated.
• The US and Hong Kong share a good business relationship due to no interference of China in the state matters which will possibly be not as good if the latter becomes a part of mainland China.
• People of Hong Kong in response to the law have come out in thousands of numbers defying both the law and the social distancing norms imposed in the wake of Covid-19.

Chinese authorities have planned to bypass the Hong Kong’s legislature to enact a National Security Law that is believed by pro-democracy activists to crack down the dissent in the city.

What is the National Security Law

• Under the national security law, a legal framework will be set up to prevent and punish subversion, terrorism, separatism/ secession and any foreign interference. The law makes any of these acts a crime.

Way Forward

• International attention should be given to this and people of Hong Kong need to be encouraged for their effort.
• It’s the high time to respond to China’s activities in order to prevent any severe actions in future.
• Letting China have its way could lead to dire consequences for Taiwan and probably many other similar states.
• China is immune to any individual country’s response and hence, a coordinated response from the bigger power nations is required.
• Apart from the external factors, on the Hong Kong people’s part:
  • They have to take a stand for the universal suffrage rights.
  • They are needed to ask for separation of power and autonomy in the administration.
  • The crisis of the real estate within the region needs to be addressed too.

India and China Relations

Understanding the Border Issue

The Case of Tibet

• Ming Dynasty in China in 1368.
• Inward looking Dynasties. Basically didn’t trade with the world. No interest to propagate the culture to the world.
• China is at the center of the World. China was regarded as a Central Kingdom.
• The control was never extended to Tibet. Tibet was an independent and autonomous country.
• In 1644, the Ming Dynasty was replaced by the Qing Dynasty. Even the Qing Dynasty adopted the inward looking policy and also the status quo on Tibet was maintained.
• In Tibet Political Rule was never strong as Tibet was basically a religious center.
• The Dalai Lama was both the Political and Religious Head of the state. Dalai Lama is not the name of an individual. The real name of the present Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso.
• Dalai Lama is a term to signify political and religious guru.
• Even the Qing Dynasty people didn’t interfere in the internal affairs of Tibet and Tibet remained a complete independent state.
• In 1717, Tibet witnesses Dzungar Rebellion.
• Mongols were north of China. They were expansionist. Chengiz Khan. There was tribal group in South Mongolia called Dzungar.
• The Dzungars started the southward expansion. They came to Tibet. In Tibet Dalai Lama was there, people were living in spirituality. There was commotion in Tibet due to this.
• The Qing Dynasty sent troops to supress the Dzungar Rebellion. The Army sent by the Qing Dynasty was successful in supressing the Dzungars.
• Even after this the Qing Dynasty maintained the status quo with Tibet and allowed Tibet to be independent and didn’t annex it.
• However, Qing Dynasty now acknowledged the vulnerability of Tibet from Invasions from the North.
• In this background, Qing Dynasty suggested positioning of a military Governor from China called Amban. Ambans would be given the responsibility to save Tibet from probable northern invasions from Mongolia. (British Resident, Modern Day Governor)
• The Ambans had military power only.
• Dzungar Rebellion affected Tibet. Tibet accepted Ambans and their presence in Tibet. Situation was okay till
• In 1792, Qing Dynasty suggested signing of a 29 Point Agreement. As per this the Ambans would be given some extra power and secondly the Ambans will have status equivalent of the Dalai Lama.
• Through this 29 Point Agreement, China was trying to basically weaken the position of Dalai Lama.
• Here China didn’t want to directly annex Tibet, but surely wanted to weaken the position of Dalai Lama.
• China was trying to influence the political landscape of Tibet through the elevated position of the Ambans.
• Tibetans resisted this 29 Point Agreement. However, in 1792, Tibet was forced to sign this agreement.
• This resulted in resentment in Tibet. The Tibetans therefore became against the Qing Dynasty.

China-Tibet Conflict

• Tibet came under the control of the Qing dynasty of China in 1720 after the Qing expelled the forces of the Dzungar Khanate from Tibet.
• It remained under Qing suzerainty (or protectorate) until 1912. The succeeding Republic of China claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty, including Tibet.
• The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China adopted in 1912 specifically established frontier regions of the new republic, including Tibet, as integral parts of the state.

Tibet’s Attempts to Remain Independent

• In July 1949, in order to prevent Chinese Communist Party-sponsored agitation in political Tibet, the Tibetan government expelled the (Nationalist) Chinese delegation in Lhasa.
• In November 1949, Tibetan government sent a letter to the U.S. State Department and a copy to Mao Zedong, and a separate letter to the British government, declaring its intent to defend itself “by all possible means” against PRC troop incursions into Tibet.
• In 1950, the 14th Dalai Lama was 15 years old and had not attained his majority, so Regent Taktra was the acting head of the Tibetan Government.
• Tibet has been occupied and ruled over by China and the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) since 1951 in “a calculated and systematic strategy aimed at the destruction of their national and cultural identities” (14th Dalai Lama, 1997).
• This has often been described by the Tibetan people as a Cultural Genocide (Goldstein, 1998).
• Eight years of occupation and repression led to the Tibetan Uprising of 1959, in which Tibetans rebelled in an attempt to overthrow the Chinese government; instead, the uprising led to the fleeing of HH the Fourteenth Dalai Lama into India, where he has lived in exile ever since.
• A few hundred Tibetans initially followed the 14th Dalai Lama into exile, and since then hundreds of thousands have followed.
• In 1951, the Dalai Lama was forced to accept the terms of the Seventeen Point Agreement, forcing Tibet to return to Chinese jurisdiction while maintaining some level of autonomy including religious freedom.
• However, throughout the 1950s, relations between Tibetan Buddhism and Communist China worsened as monasteries continued to be places of resistance and potential shelter for rebels.
• With increased Chinese negativity towards religion and allegations of disappearing lamas, the Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959.
• After the imprisonment of the Panchen Lama for a dissenting report about the state of Tibetan affairs, China no longer felt restrained by its earlier promises and was free to enforce its policies.
• The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) demonstrated this through the destruction of many symbols of Tibetan religious life, including temples and monasteries.
• Furthermore, religious figures and other educated individuals were forced into re-education and severely maltreated.
• Although Chinese policies in the 1980s tried to revert some of the destruction, the damage to Tibetan culture was already done.
• In the late 1980s, tensions between Tibet and China increased until violence climaxed in early 1989 with the deaths of many protesting Tibetans by police fire.
• In an attempt to curb instability in Tibet during the 1990s and 2000s, the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) pushed for the economic development of the region and campaigned for the removal of images of the Dalai Lama from public areas and many private residences.
• Furthermore, the Chinese government re-hauled educational texts for Tibetan students, ultimately promoting Chinese ideologies in the Tibetan language.

Why China wanted to acquire Tibet in the first place

• Firstly, if you remember, during the civil war in China both KMT and CPC collectively ensured urban and rural integration of China. This resulted in unification of the Core in the hindsight of the civil war. Now, China concentrated on strengthening its periphery. There came the question of Tibet.
• Secondly, control over Tibet was essential to ensure uninterrupted integration of Kashger (Xinjiang Province) with China, as Tibet was bordering Kashger.
• Kashger Region has been troublesome historically due to the fact that the people inhabiting this Region were from the Central Asian Region and were Muslims and not Han Chinese. So, control over Tibet was crucial for China.
• Thirdly, control over Tibet is also essential to check any Indian misadventure in Tibet. China already saw an Indian king interfering in Kashger Region. In 1951 also when the PLA entered Tibet through Aksai Chin, India asked China to respect the sovereignty of Tibet and also questioned its movement of PLA troops into Tibet through Aksai China calling it as Indian territory.

• Recently also tensions erupted when Indian PM celebrated the birthday of Dalai Lama in India.
• This news was telecasted in China with lot of criticism and dissatisfaction.
• India now in some ways openly talks about the Tibet and India’s support to Tibet.