BASIC TERMINOLOGY
ETHICS BASIC TERMINOLOGY
ETHICS
• The term ethics often describes the investigation and analysis of moral principles and dilemmas. Traditionally, philosophers and religious scholars have studied ethics. More recently, scholars from various disciplines have entered the field, creating new approaches to the study of ethics such as behavioral ethics and applied ethics.
• The term ethics can also refer to rules or guidelines that establish what conduct is right and wrong for individuals and for groups. For example, codes of conduct express relevant ethical standards for professionals in many fields, such as medicine, law, journalism, and accounting.
• Some philosophers make a distinction between ethics and morals. But many people use the terms ethics and morals interchangeably when talking about personal beliefs, actions, or principles. For example, it’s common to say, “My ethics prevent me from cheating.” It’s also common to use morals in this sentence instead.
• So, whether we use the term ethics to refer to personal beliefs, or rules of conduct, or the study of moral philosophy, ethics provides a framework for understanding and interpreting right and wrong in society.
APTITUDE
• Aptitude is a set of abilities required to be successful in a specific field.
• Abilities can be innate, genetic or by birth.
• However, some abilities can surely be developed with training or improved with training (Laszlo Polgar) – Polgar Sisters
• Success is a combination of 4 qualities
o Hard Work
o Interest
o Aptitude (Basic Ability)
o Training
• In the Same manner in Civil Services the aptitude can be improved/developed by training and providing the right environment
Absolutism
• Moral absolutism asserts that there are certain universal moral principles by which all peoples’ actions may be judged. It is a form of deontology.
• The challenge with moral absolutism, however, is that there will always be strong disagreements about which moral principles are correct and which are incorrect.
• For example, most people around the world probably accept the idea that we should treat others as we wish to be treated ourselves. But beyond that, people from different countries likely hold varying views about everything from the morality of abortion and capital punishment to nepotism and bribery.
• So, while moral absolutism declares a universal set of moral values, in reality, moral principles vary greatly among nations, cultures, and religions.
Anonymity
• Anonymity describes situations where the acting person’s identity is unknown.
• Bureaucrat is supposed to work behind the curtain and avoid media limelight and public gaze.
• He’ll not get credit for the success and he’ll not be blamed for the failure. It’ll be responsibility of the political executive to handle all the applaud and criticism.
• He (bureaucrat) should avoid going to media to air his grievances or differences of opinion.
• Minister must be given the power to extra work, power to reward and punish.
• Officer has to be accountable to his superior executive (both permanent and political).
• Minister has to be accountable to people.
Altruism
• Altruism means acting in the best interest of others rather than in one’s own self-interest. Some people believe altruism constitutes the essence of morality.
• Although we often act selfishly, we also seem to be wired to cooperate with others. For example, studies show that when people look for mates, they tend to look for kindness more than any other quality.
• Altruism refers to behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to oneself. For example, giving your lunch away is altruistic because it helps someone who is hungry, but at a cost of being hungry yourself.
• Altruism also builds social connections. For example, studies show that people who are altruistic tend to be happier, to be healthier, and to live longer.
• So, while altruism leads us to do what’s best for others, it also makes us feel good in the process
Attitude
• Attitude is orientation or inclination of a person towards any psychological object which can be either positive, negative or ambivalent.
• A Psychological object can be a person, a material thing, a place, a community, a country, a book, a colour, thoughts and feelings.
• Once can possess thousands of attitudes at a time.
• But, why is it that UPSC is concerned with the Attitude of a person.
• A person with a specific attitude may not be able to deal with the challenges of being a civil servant. For eg if someone has an negative attitude towards a community, towards a specific caste or gender based bias would be a misfit in the society.
• That is the reason why the Attitude of a person matters.
Autonomy
• Autonomy is an individual’s capacity for self-determination or self-governance. There are several different notions of autonomy, including personal autonomy, moral autonomy and political autonomy.
• Individual autonomy is an idea that is generally understood to refer to the capacity to be oneself to live one’s life according to reasons and motives that are taken as one’s own and not the product of manipulative or distorting external forces.
• Moral autonomy, usually traced back, is the capacity to deliberate and to give oneself the moral law, rather than merely heeding the injunctions of others.
• Autonomy has also been held to be a basis for self-respect and respecting others in that, if agents are autonomous, they are not to be treated or regarded merely as means for the interests and purposes of others
Cognitivism
• Cognitivism focusses on mental processes, including how people think, perceive and learn, to solve their problems and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than another.
• Moral claims are true or false by virtue of objective moral considerations. There is room for argument over whether they are true or not, and whether if true, they admit of exceptions.
• Cognition refers to “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses”
Confirmation Bias
• Confirmation bias is the tendency of people’s minds to seek out information that supports the views they already hold. It also leads people to interpret evidence in ways that support their pre-existing beliefs, expectations, or hypotheses.
• People easily accept new information that is consistent with their beliefs, but are skeptical of information that contradicts their beliefs. In other words, the confirmation bias can create self-fulfilling prophecies.
• So the confirmation bias can easily lead us to reach inaccurate –and even unethical– conclusions. It’s essential to recognize our vulnerability to confirmation bias, and actively guard against it by being open to evidence that is not consistent with our beliefs and theories.
Conscience
• The part of you that judges how moral your own actions are and makes you feel guilty about bad things that you have done or things you feel responsible for:
• A person’s moral sense of right and wrong, viewed as acting as a guide to one’s behaviour.
• Some of the main issues regarding conscience are:
o Whether acting in accord with conscience renders one blameless, even if what one does is wrong; whether it is morally worse to act contrary to conscience and be a hypocrite, or to act wrongly though conscientiously;
o whether conscience is a faculty that is part of our nature or is acquired; what the conditions are in which it is appropriate to disobey the law and legal authority when what they require is contrary to conscience; by what tests we can determine whether conscience is a proper guide to action and moral self-evaluation.
Consequentialism
• Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. But if telling a lie would help save a person’s life, consequentialism says it’s the right thing to do.
• Two examples of consequentialism are utilitarianism and hedonism. Utilitarianism judges consequences by a “greatest good for the greatest number” standard. Hedonism, on the other hand, says something is “good” if the consequence produces pleasure or avoids pain.
• Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result of an action will be ahead of time. Indeed, no one can know the future with certainty. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good.
• However, when judging the idea solely on its results, as classic consequentialism does, then “the end justifies the means.”
Culture Vs Tradition
• Culture is the collective term to identify certain ideas, customs, and social behaviors. It represents a group of people or a society, combining their knowledge, beliefs, morals, and laws.
• For the most part, culture looks at the big picture. It’s a general term that represents the whole. It includes everything from the food you eat to the TV shows you watch, as well as art, language, fashion, dance, and more.
• When you think of the Japanese culture, for instance, certain foods, movie genres, dances, art, and language likely come to mind. Culture is what brings an entire group of people together. It not only represents what you do but also what you believe. It’s deep-rooted into your personality and behavior, often resulting in shared morals and values. It’s a shared sense of community identity.
• In short, culture is everything a certain group of people has amassed throughout their history. It’s a way of life that you learn through immersion as you experience it each and every day.
• Tradition, on the other hand, is a more specific term. It’s often used to describe an individual event or practice, such as removing your shoes when entering your home.
• Traditions are ideas and beliefs passed down from one generation to the next. They’re not rules, but rather guidelines. Each family within a culture can have its own unique traditions while sharing other common ones.
• For example, each year on the 3rd March many Japanese families celebrate their daughters, wishing them happiness and success. This is a shared tradition that goes back many generations. It isn’t a law you must abide by, but most families celebrate it because they consider it a part of their culture. Yet different families may celebrate it in different ways. A tradition to go to a certain location, for instance, or to present a specific gift.
• In short, traditions present a link to the past. They allow you to honor your ancestors and pay respect to certain aspects of your culture.
Double Effect Principle
• According to this principle, at least some actions that have both good and bad effects are permissible. They are permissible as long as the bad effects, though foreseeable, are not intended, and the good that is achieved is not achieved as a result of the bad effects.
• The principle has been the focus of considerable controversy – both with respect to its formulation and with respect to its justification – especially in the context of the destruction of a foetus as part of a medical procedure, euthanasia, and other medical ethical issues.
Dexterity
• It is the skill in performing tasks, especially with the hands. It is the ability that a person possesses which enables him to perform a particular task. This ability can be manual or acquired.
• However, it is the practice which leads to refining of the particular skill. Even civil servants must possess this attribute so that they can be more efficient in their functioning. They can then perform the work themselves without depending on anyone
Diffusion of Responsibility
• Diffusion of responsibility occurs when people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead. The more people involved, the more likely it is that each person will do nothing, believing someone else from the group will probably respond.
• Psychologists set up an experiment where a distress call made it appear that a person nearby had suffered an injury. When subjects heard the cry, and thought they were the only ones who heard it, 85% of them helped. But if subjects thought there was another person who heard the call too, only 62% helped. And if subjects thought that four other people also heard the cry for help, just 31% took action.
• Diffusion of responsibility makes people feel less pressure to act because they believe, correctly or incorrectly, that someone else will do so. And, when we don’t feel responsible for a situation, we feel less guilty when we do nothing to help.
• So, in this way, diffusion of responsibility keeps us from paying attention to our own conscience.
Diligence
• Diligence is the careful and persistent work or effort. It is similar to hard or sustained efforts despite failure.
• Diligence is steadfast application, assiduousness and industry; the virtue of hard work. It is one of the seven heavenly virtues that an individual must possess.
• When there is diligence or the dedicated efforts an individual does not lose confidence easily.
Emotivism
• Developed by David Hume (1711-1776)
• Moral judgment are an emotional expression about an action or person, hence when people make statements they are merely asserting their feelings
• Ethical statement are only attitudes masquerading the facts.
• For the emotivist morality is based on sentiment rather than fact
• An ethical theory which says that moral statements are just expressions of FEELINGS and/or EMOTIONS.
• It is a NON-COGNITIVE theory.
• Ethical statements cannot be proved true or false.
• Therefore, objective moral laws do NOT exist
Elation
• Elation is great happiness and exhilaration. Elation is more than mere happiness — it is extreme, exhilarating joy. It has a sense of rising or expanding, even to the point of light-headedness.
• It is an exhilarating psychological state of pride and optimism or a feeling of joy and pride.
• It comes when somebody gets something he had been longing from long time. Happiness while denotes the emotion of joy, it is a higher level of happiness.
Empathy
• Empathy is the experience of understanding another person’s condition from their perspective by placing oneself in their shoes and feel what they are feeling. Empathy is known to increase prosocial (helping) behaviours.
• Empathy is the ability to see and value what another person is feeling or experiencing. When we see someone in pain and feel that response in our own gut, that’s empathy. When we see someone crying tears of joy at an important reunion and notice ourselves choking up, that’s empathy.
• It denotes the action of understanding, being aware of, being sensitive to and experiencing the feelings, thoughts and experience communicated in an objective manner. While sympathy is the feeling that one cares for and is sorry about someone’s else grief, trouble etc.
Expediency
• Expedient is being suitable for achieving a particular end in a given circumstance.
• Expediency is the quality of being convenient and practical despite possibly being improper or immoral. The means do not matter much in this context. There are some individuals who are smooth and convenient in all aspects of life.
Firmness
• Firmness is being resistant to externally applied pressure and is marked by or indicating the tone and resiliency of the person. It is used to denote the quality of showing determination or resolution.
• Firmness to the goals or objectives in life is very important as the person must not deviate from his set goals inspite of the constraints or the obstacles that come in the way.
Fortitude
• It is the Strength of mind that allows one to endure pain or adversity with courage. It refers to displaying courage in pain or adversity and showing mental and emotional strength in facing difficulty, adversity, danger, or temptation courageously.
• Courage is mental and moral strength to venture, persevere, and withstand danger, fear or difficulty. It is the firmness of mind and will in the face of danger or extreme difficulty. It suggests an ingrained capacity for meeting strain with fortitude and resilience. A person who is mentally and physically strong, is normally found to be courageous.
Fidelity
• Fidelity is the quality of being faithful or loyal. It refers to the strict observance of promises, duties, etc. It is displaying of conjugal faithfulness. In today’s society, fidelity is something that most people no longer pay mind to.
• It has become so common to lie or cheat in a relationship that it is not looked at as a loss of moral values for most of today’s modern and more liberal society. The word fidelity can be applied to personal relationships where it is usually described as devotion.
• It can be applied to an unswerving love for ones country, allegiance. It could be a word used to describe an attitude to work or commitment at workplace
Fiduciary Duty
• A fiduciary duty is the legal responsibility to act solely in the best interest of another party.
• “Fiduciary” means trust, and a person with a fiduciary duty has a legal obligation to maintain that trust. For example, lawyers have a fiduciary duty to act in the best interest of their clients. Similarly, physicians have a duty to care for, and act in, the best interest of their patients. Likewise, trustees have a duty to manage the assets of a trust for its beneficiaries, and directors to manage corporate assets in the best interest of shareholders.
• Some examples of fiduciary duties include duties of undivided loyalty, due diligence and reasonable care, full disclosure of any conflicts of interest, and confidentiality.
• While a fiduciary duty may be violated accidentally, it is still a breach of ethics. And to most people, an intentional violation of fiduciary duty is considered especially treacherous.
Gratitude
• It is a feeling of being grateful and wanting to express thanks. Gratitude is a close companion of both integrity and humility. Gratitude without integrity is insincere flattery. Gratitude follows both integrity and humility. Gratitude can be expressed in many ways. It can even come as a small concrete token of thanks.
• The civil servants should be grateful to their seniors and subordinates for their cooperation. Gratitude is something that shows humanity of a person. Civil servants are helped by many people in order to achieve their work. Hence they should be grateful to all those who have helped them
Hedonism
• Hedonism is a school of thought that argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives ‘to maximize net pleasure’ (pleasure minus pain) Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the right to do everything in their power to achieved the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them.
• It is also the idea that every person’s pleasure should far surpass their amount of pain.
Humility
• It is quality of not thinking that one is better than other people. Though strong self confidence and high self esteem are healthy personality traits, there is a point when they cease to be virtues, the point at which a person feels more important than another, or above reproach and learning.
• Humility on the other hand, breeds growth and friendship. It is considered as mother of all virtues. Being humble is very essential for civil servants. They can turn arrogant because of power and authority so they are expected to be humble.
• Civil servants should not think themselves so big that other people look small. They work in a team, so they should willingly give credit to others who have helped them along the way
Honesty
• Honesty refers to a facet of moral character and connotes positive and virtuous attributes such as integrity, truthfulness, straight forwardness, including straight forwardness of conduct, along with the absence of lying, cheating, theft, etc.
• Furthermore, honesty means being trustworthy, loyal, fair, and sincere. Honesty is a great virtue which is adored all over the world. It is rare to find a truly honest man.
• A man is born with the quality of honesty, and then, it depends how he is brought up by his parents. An honest man becomes morally strong. He keeps his head high in the society. His character is like a sharp sword made of stainless steel
Impartiality
• Impartiality ensures equality without any bias and prejudices. Non partisanship requires neutral political approach and commitment to the government in power. Impartiality require carrying out responsibilities in a way that is just and fair.
• Civil servants should not act in a way that unjustifiably favours or discriminates a particular individual or interest. Civil servants must perform and may be perceived to perform, their duties in an impartial manner to establish an egalitarian society.
• The political neutrality and political impartiality are one of the most important values, a civil servant should imbibe, which ensure trust of the politicians in the bureaucratic systems enabling continuity of various schemes, polices and programmes.
Integrity
• Integrity, said author C.S. Lewis, “is doing the right thing, even when no one is looking.” Integrity is a foundational moral virtue, and the bedrock upon which good character is built.
• Acting with integrity means understanding, accepting, and choosing to live in accordance with one’s principles, which will include honesty, fairness, and decency. A person of integrity will consistently demonstrate good character by being free of corruption and hypocrisy.
• Integrity is revealed when people act virtuously regardless of circumstance or consequences. This often requires moral courage. Indeed, integrity is the critical connection between ethics and moral action.
Inventiveness
• It is the introduction of new things, ideas and ways. The act of innovation can generate many emotions. It can bring agony, sweat, tears and exhaustion. But it can also bring great thrills, satisfaction and joy. Innovation is needed in civil services at various stages.
• It makes the civil services generate new ideas and thoughts which can then be put into action for social development and they can be trained through various innovative programmes to improve their skills. Innovation helps the civil servant to improve his performance and overall performance of the team.
• Every scheme of the government is a beautiful example of innovative exercise to bring positive change
Leadership
• Leadership can be hard to define and it means different things to different people. Leadership may be defined as a position of power held by an individual in a group, which provides him with an opportunity to exercise interpersonal influence on the group members for mobilising and directing their efforts towards certain goals.
• The leader is at the centre of group’s power structure, keeps the group together, infuses life into it, moves it towards its goals and maintains its momentum.
• In the transformational leadership model, leaders set direction and help themselves and others to do the right thing to move forward. To do this they create an inspiring vision, and then motivate and inspire others to reach that vision.
Meta – Ethics
• Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status, foundations, and scope of moral values, properties, and words. Whereas the fields of applied ethics and normative theory focus on what is moral, meta-ethics focuses on what morality itself is.
Modesty
• Modesty means feeling or appearing to feel humbly about oneself. A modest man does not boast of his own merits or achievements. He rather feels shy, if anyone praises him in his presence. He shows his regard for conventional decencies in dress or behaviour.
• Modesty is one of the finest qualities of man and is akin to politeness. A man may have many good qualities, but if he is not modest, he cannot command respect, and even his good qualities are overlooked. Humble are the wise. They do not pretend to say that they know what they do not know. They listen to the big and the small with equal attention, and try to learn from others, by giving equal prominence to everyone. So a modest person is loved by all.
• A modest person does not try to show his wisdom unless he is asked to do so. He possesses a noble heart. His outlook about life is broad. He is generous in his behaviour and simple by nature. Sweetness of his character attracts those who come near him. He is the storehouse of positive energy in life. He does not envy his neighbours or enemies; he becomes happy to see others prosper in life.
Objectivity
• Objectivity is the propensity to base decisions and perceptions on exterior information instead of on subjective aspects, like private emotions, beliefs, and experiences.
• To maintain objectivity Civil servants should be impartial, open-minded, guided by evidence, and willing to hear different viewpoints. They should be ready to acknowledge and correct mistakes.
• Civil servants should be loyal to the government of the day and be politically neutral in their day-today functions.
Pragmatism
• Pragmatism means accepting what’s real and making the best of it.
• Pragmatism is figuring out how to fulfill our values and mission in the real world rather than spending our energy complaining that things should be different.
• When we are pragmatic, we accept the status quo, even if we don’t like it. We explore the cause and effect relationships that govern our lives, and then use the power we have to make things better.
Prudence
• Prudence or caution is the quality of approaching situations thoughtfully, considering the possibilities and risk at play. It means taking time to assimilate context and history prior to launching into action. It means reality-checking our own assumptions and instinctual reactions.
• Caution often prevents mistakes and unnecessary detours by reminding us to listen and to learn. Judiciously applied—without reverting to fear, superstition, or cynicism— caution allows us to process and consider so we can then proceed with greater clarity and confidence. A healthy caution leads to healthy action.
Public Interest
• Anything which is for the betterment of all/overall maximum or even few people in a given geographical area.
• For eg. A plan to construct a Canal in a drought prone area.
• Or, a Project to develop a fly over or a metro in a very high traffic dense area.
• Or, Construction of Ramp for physically handicapped for improving access to various public places.
• Real Interest Vs Perceived Interest:
Relativism
• Relativism, roughly put, is the view that truth and falsity, right and wrong, standards of reasoning, and procedures of justification are products of differing conventions and frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the context giving rise to them.
• Cognitive Relativism (truth) – Cognitive relativism affirms that all truth is relative. This would mean that no system of truth is more valid than another one, and that there is no objective standard of truth. It would, naturally, deny that there is a God of absolute truth.
• Moral/Ethical relativism – All morals are relative to the social group within which they are constructed.
• Situational Relativism – Ethics (right and wrong) are dependent upon the situation.
Subjectivity
Subjectivity in ethics refers to the idea that moral judgments and principles are influenced by individual perspectives, emotions, and personal experiences rather than being purely objective or universal. This means that ethical beliefs can vary significantly from person to person based on their cultural background, personal values, and societal influences.
For instance, what one person considers morally acceptable might be viewed differently by someone else due to differing personal or cultural viewpoints. This subjectivity challenges the notion of universal ethical standards and highlights the importance of understanding and respecting diverse moral perspectives in ethical discussions.
Utilitarianism
• Utilitarianism states that in general the ethical rightness or wrongness of an action is directly related to the utility of that action.
• Utility is more specifically defined as “a measure of the goodness or badness of the consequences of an action, Utility will be considered to be the tendency to produce happiness.”
• Attribution is giving credit where credit is due.
• Appropriation is the complex borrowing of ideas, images, symbols, sounds, and identity from others.
Attributability and Appropriation
• Fair use is a doctrine that allows for limited use of copyrighted materials without acquiring permission, for purposes such as teaching, journalism, parody, or critique. Do you agree with these parameters? Are there other instances that should constitute fair use?
• According to the terms and conditions of YouTube, the company says it may use any works uploaded as it chooses, but will not claim credit for creation of the piece. Do you think this is ethically permissible? Why or why not? Would you feel comfortable with YouTube using a video you created in an advertisement for the company?
• How can artists use others’ creative works in an ethical manner? When is appropriation unethical?
Bounded Ethicality
Bounded ethicality explains how predictable organizational pressures and psychological processes cause us to engage in ethically questionable behavior that is inconsistent with our own values and preferences.
Cognitive Dissonance
• Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort that we feel when our minds entertain two contradictory concepts at the same time.
• Can you think of a time when you ignored your gut and later wished you hadn’t?
• Can you think of a time when your gut got that guilty feeling and kept you from making a moral mistake?
Conformity Bias
• Conformity bias refers to our tendency to take cues for proper behaviour in most contexts from the actions of others rather than exercise our own independent judgment.
• Can you think of a time when you did something just because everyone else was doing it—even when it didn’t feel quite right to you? Do you regret it now?
• How can an organization that wants its employees to make decisions in accordance with their own moral compass encourage them to do so?
Ethical fading
Ethical fading occurs when we are so focused on other aspects of a decision that its ethical dimensions fade from view.
1. Can you explain the concept of ethical fading and perhaps give an example of when it happened to you?
2. Can you think of a situation where you were so intent upon pleasing an authority figure, fitting in with your friends, or achieving a goal that you failed to give an ethical issue your full attention? Did that situation cause you regret?
Fundamental Attribution Error describes how, when judging others’ actions, we tend to give too much causal weight to their character and not enough to the circumstances in which they acted.
Incrementalism
• Incrementalism is the slippery slope that often causes people to slide unintentionally into unethical behavior. It can happen when people cut small corners that become bigger over time. For example, almost every instance of accounting fraud begins with people fudging small numbers that grow larger and larger.
• People’s brains are not adept at perceiving small changes. In addition, continued exposure to unethical behavior is desensitizing and makes those activities seem routine. Indeed, we can easily lose sight of the fact that those activities are immoral and possibly illegal.
• Wrongdoers, and people in general, may never even realize that they are making a life-changing decision when they make small, unethical choices. But in truth, as philosopher Jonathan Glover says, incrementalism is how we “slide into participation by imperceptible degrees so that there is never the sense of a frontier being crossed.”
Loss Aversion
• We hate losses about twice as much as we enjoy gains, meaning we are more likely to act unethically to avoid a loss than to secure a gain. This phenomenon is known as loss aversion.
In Group/Out Group
• An in-group is a group of people who identify with each other based on a variety of factors including gender, race, religion, or geography. Our tendency to distinguish between in-group and out-group members has moral implications.
• People may harm those whom they perceive to be in an out-group in ways that they would not harm in-group members. For example, one study showed that when football fans viewed fans of their own team being harmed, they felt empathy. But when they viewed fans of a rival team being similarly harmed, they felt pleasure.
• Likewise, people tend to make different moral judgments based on in-group and out-group distinctions. When someone in our in-group misbehaves, the natural reaction is often to dismiss the behavior as no big deal. But when someone in our out-group does the same thing, we will tend to judge the behavior much more harshly.
• Indeed, when automatic in-group and out-group distinctions replace conscious and thoughtful reflection, we are more likely to harm one another and behave unethically.
Value
• In ethics, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining what actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions.
• Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to act one way or another. They serve as a guide for human behavior.
• Values are conscious and unconscious motivators and justifiers of the actions and judgement.
• Generally, people are predisposed to adopt the values that they are raised with. People also tend to believe that those values are “right” because they are the values of their particular culture.
• Ethical decision-making often involves weighing values against each other and choosing which values to elevate. Conflicts can result when people have different values, leading to a clash of preferences and priorities.
• Some values have intrinsic worth, such as love, truth, and freedom. Other values, such as ambition, responsibility, and courage, describe traits or behaviors that are instrumental as means to an end.
Value Neutrality
• Value neutrality, as described by Max Weber, is the duty of sociologists to identify and acknowledge their own values and overcome their personal biases when conducting sociological research.
• Many sociologists believe it is impossible to set aside personal values and retain complete objectivity
• In order to be value-neutral, sociologists must be aware of their own moral judgments and values, and avoid incorporating them into their research, their conclusions, and their teaching
Core Values
Virtue
• Virtue is a moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behaviour that shows high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. The opposite of virtue is vice.
Deontology
• Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong. Deontology is often associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as “Don’t lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat.”
• Deontology is simple to apply. It just requires that people follow the rules and do their duty.
• Unlike consequentialism, which judges actions by their results, deontology doesn’t require weighing the costs and benefits of a situation. This avoids subjectivity and uncertainty because you only have to follow set rules.
• Despite its strengths, rigidly following deontology can produce results that many people find unacceptable.
• So, following the rules makes deontology easy to apply. But it also means disregarding the possible consequences of our actions when determining what is right and what is wrong.
Framing
• A frame of reference, or point of view, refers to the way we look at a given situation. How a person views that situation can affect his/her understanding of the facts and influence how she determines right from wrong.
• Some frames minimize or even omit the ethical aspects of a decision. For example, studies show that if people are prompted to frame a situation only in terms of money or economic interests, they often leave out ethical considerations.
• In a famous study, a day care center having difficulty with parents picking up their children on time started charging a fine for being late. Parents then reframed the issue from an ethical one (“It’s not nice of me to burden the staff in this way”) to a business one (“I can buy the staff’s time by paying this fine”). Late pick-ups increased rather than decreased due to this change in the parents’ frame of reference.
• So, by remembering to consider the ethical implications of any situation, we can keep ethics in our frame of reference when making decisions.
• Moral Muteness
• Moral muteness occurs when people witness unethical behavior and choose not to say anything.
• When we see others acting unethically, often the easiest thing to do is look the other way. Studies show that less than half of those who witness organizational wrongdoing report it. To speak out risks conflict, and we tend to avoid conflict because we pay an emotional and social cost for it.
• Indeed, only a relatively small percentage of people who see wrongdoing speak up. But, if we wish to be ethical people, we must strive to combat moral muteness in all areas of our lives.
Group Think
• Groupthink occurs when people’s desire to maintain group loyalty becomes more important than making the best choices. People often find it hard to think and act independently in group situations.
• Group members often suffer overconfidence and hold an unquestioned belief in the group’s competence and morality. Dissent by group members may be discouraged and even lead to expulsion from the group. Because people often want to avoid these punishments, they remain silent. This creates the illusion of agreement or unanimity in the group.
• Groups may also reach decisions, including moral judgments, which are more extreme than any single member of the group originally supported. Unfortunately, if groupthink takes hold, group members may not even question ethically dubious decisions and actions.
• Indeed, groupthink can cause us to value harmony and consensus over independent judgment, and can lead to unethical behavior.
Conflict of interest
Conflict of interest arises when we have incentives that conflict with our professional duties and responsibilities in ways that cause harm to others and to society.
1. What conflicts of interest have you personally experienced in personal or professional roles?
2. If you perceive a potential conflict for yourself, what are some ways you might ensure that this conflict doesn’t lead to unethical behavior for you and others?
3. Why do you believe conflicts of interest are so pervasive in society? Why don’t we take more steps to avoid them?
4. Why is it so hard for individuals to recognize their own conflicts of interest, and how is this impacted by behavioral biases?
Moral illusions are spontaneous, intuitive moral judgments that are very persistent, but they violate our deepest moral values. They distract us away from a rational, authentic ethic.
• Fair use is a doctrine that allows for limited use of copyrighted materials without acquiring permission, for purposes such as teaching, journalism, parody, or critique. Do you agree with these parameters? Are there other instances that should constitute fair use?
• According to the terms and conditions of YouTube, the company says it may use any works uploaded as it chooses, but will not claim credit for creation of the piece. Do you think this is ethically permissible? Why or why not? Would you feel comfortable with YouTube using a video you created in an advertisement for the company?
• How can artists use others’ creative works in an ethical manner? When is appropriation unethical?